[History] Shinsen-en Garden and the Goryo-e of the 5th Year of Jogan

Introduction

Located in the heart of Heian-kyo, Shinsen-en Garden was built as a forbidden garden symbolizing royal authority, yet as time passed, it transformed into a space reflecting the various aspects of politics, religion, and society. While its vast landscape, centered on a pond, is known as a stage for banquets and imperial excursions, such as those by Emperor Kanmu, it also provides important historical clues as to how the imperial court faced the disasters and epidemics that occurred in the capital. In particular, the fact that a state-level Goryo-e (spirit-appeasement ceremony) was held at Shinsen-en for the first time in the 5th year of Jogan (863) is an event that cannot be overlooked when considering the formation of the concept of vengeful spirits (onryo) in Heian society and the subsequent development of Goryo belief.
According to historical records, Shinsen-en was already a place where imperial excursions were frequently held during the Enryaku era, and the entry for the 19th day of the 7th month of the 19th year of Enryaku (800) in the Nihon Kiryaku records that Emperor Kanmu visited the garden. Records in the Nihon Koki and Ruiju Kokushi also remain of various events such as sumo wrestling, archery, hunting, and horse viewing, indicating that Shinsen-en occupied a firm position as a ritual space for royal authority. However, this character as a place for banquets underwent a major shift upon entering the Jogan period. As epidemics spread through the capital and people began to seek the cause in the curses of vengeful spirits, Shinsen-en began to take on a new role as a place for soul-pacification and prayer.
The Goryo-e of the 5th year of Jogan was an event that symbolized this turning point. The entry for the 20th day of the 5th month of that year in the Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku records that altars were set up in Shinsen-en to comfort the spirits of six individuals—Emperor Sudo (Prince Sawara), Prince Iyo, Fujiwara no Yoshiko, Tachibana no Hayanari, and Funya no Miyatamaro—and that various performing arts such as sutra chanting, bugaku, and sangaku were dedicated to them. On this day, the four gates of the garden were opened, and it is said that the people of the capital were free to enter and watch, which was groundbreaking in that royal rituals were opened to the public for the first time. This Goryo-e, which became the catalyst for institutionalizing rituals to appease vengeful spirits as state events, is also deeply connected to the origins of the later Gion Goryo-e and the Gion Festival.
In this paper, I will examine how Shinsen-en transformed from a forbidden garden into a religious and social space, focusing on the Goryo-e of the 5th year of Jogan. By deciphering the relationship between royal authority, the concept of vengeful spirits, and urban society using the specific scenes recorded in historical materials as clues, I hope to capture the role that Shinsen-en played in the history of Heian-kyo in a more three-dimensional way. Tracing the process from the establishment of Shinsen-en to the implementation of the Goryo-e should have significant meaning not only for clarifying the history of a single ritual but also for understanding the spiritual history of Heian society.

1. The Establishment of Shinsen-en and its Character as a Forbidden Garden

The Enryaku era, when Heian-kyo was built, was a period when the reorganization of royal authority and the reconstruction of national order were underway, and facilities symbolizing the authority of the Emperor were intentionally placed in the design of the urban space. Shinsen-en was one of the central entities, established as a forbidden garden on land adjacent to the south of the Daidairi (Greater Imperial Palace) at almost the same time as the relocation of the capital in the 13th year of Enryaku (794). The entry for the 19th day of the 7th month of the 19th year of Enryaku (800) in the Nihon Kiryaku records that Emperor Kanmu visited Shinsen-en, confirming that the garden was already maintained and used for the Emperor's excursions at this point. The fact that the establishment of the garden is positioned immediately after the relocation of the capital can be said to show the intention of royal authority to secure a symbolic space in the new capital at an early stage.
The location of Shinsen-en spanned eight blocks surrounded by the Nijo, Sanjo, Omiya, and Mibu avenues of the Left Capital, and it had a vast scale of two blocks east-west and four blocks north-south. This was one of the largest gardens in Heian-kyo, and its structure, with islands and pavilions centered on a pond, is said to have modeled the Shanglin Garden of the Han dynasty in China. The Nihon Koki and Ruiju Kokushi record that buildings such as the Kenrin-kaku and Tsuridono were built within the garden, indicating that facilities were in place for the Emperor to enjoy boating and archery. Looking at the topographic maps of the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, the land of Shinsen-en is located at the end of an alluvial fan and was a forest zone, so it is thought that a landscape that skillfully incorporated natural ponds and forests was formed.

Shinsen-en as a forbidden garden was not merely a place for entertainment but strongly carried the character of a symbol of royal authority. A forbidden garden was a space that was simultaneously the Emperor's private domain and a stage for state rituals, and entry by the general public was strictly restricted. The entry for the 12th day of the 2nd month of the 3rd year of Konin (812) in the Nihon Koki states, "The festival of flower viewing begins here," indicating that Shinsen-en was institutionalized as a place for banquets during the era of Emperor Saga. It is noted that there were 102 imperial excursions by the four emperors Kanmu, Heizei, Saga, and Junna alone, and that the garden was frequently used as a ritual space for royal authority. The frequency of these excursions tells us that Shinsen-en was a place that visually demonstrated the Emperor's authority.
The events held within the garden were diverse, and sumo, archery, boating, and poetry banquets are recorded. The Ruiju Kokushi contains an article about Emperor Saga composing poetry with his subjects at Shinsen-en, showing that it also had the character of a literary space. These events served to demonstrate the Emperor's cultural refinement and also had the function of ritually adjusting relationships with his subjects. Shinsen-en can be said to have been an important stage supporting royal authority in the early Heian period as a space that combined political and cultural symbolism.
The use of the natural environment is also an aspect that cannot be overlooked in the establishment of Shinsen-en. The area where the garden was built was a place blessed with water within Heian-kyo, making a garden structure that utilized natural springs and ponds possible. The large pond, called the Hojoju-ike, was the central entity of the garden and was also used for boating and rain-praying rituals. In later legends, it is said that a dragon god lived in the pond, and an anecdote is told that when Kukai performed the rain-praying ritual, he invited the dragon god. Although historical evidence is limited, it is certain that Shinsen-en was a space deeply connected to water, and it is thought that its character as a place where the natural environment and religious concepts overlapped was formed early on.
Shinsen-en as a forbidden garden occupied a unique position within the urban structure of Heian-kyo. Its location adjacent to the south of the Daidairi created a structure where the Emperor's residence and ritual space were continuous, playing a role in visually emphasizing the centrality of royal authority. The south side of the Daidairi was originally designed as a ritually important space, and placing a vast forbidden garden there can be said to have been an attempt to carve the symbolism of royal authority into the urban space. The existence of Shinsen-en is concrete evidence showing that Heian-kyo was not merely an administrative city but a city that embodied the ritual order of royal authority.
However, the character of Shinsen-en as a forbidden garden changed with the passage of time. Upon entering the Jogan period, epidemics and droughts occurred frequently in the capital, and the imperial court began to seek the cause in the curses of vengeful spirits. On the 17th day of the 9th month of the 4th year of Jogan (862), it is recorded that Shinsen-en was opened to the common people during a drought, showing signs that the closed nature of the forbidden garden was being relaxed. The situation where a forbidden garden was opened to the public indicates that the symbolic space of royal authority was in the process of transforming into a religious space to respond to social crises. This change became the foreshadowing for the first Goryo-e to be held at Shinsen-en in the following year, the 5th year of Jogan (863).
Tracing the establishment of Shinsen-en and its character as a forbidden garden, we can see that the symbolism of royal authority, the use of the natural environment, and the multifaceted role as a ritual space existed in a layered manner. Shinsen-en as a forbidden garden was located at the center of the politics, culture, and religion of Heian-kyo, and while it was a place that embodied the authority of royal authority, it was also a flexible space that responded to social crises. This ambiguity is what would later form the background for Shinsen-en being chosen as the stage for the Goryo-e.

2. Use and Transformation of Shinsen-en in the Early Heian Period

Shinsen-en was frequently used as a place for imperial banquets and rituals immediately after its establishment, but the way it was used changed according to the passage of time. Starting with the excursions of Emperor Kanmu, four successive emperors—Heizei, Saga, and Junna—visited the garden, and according to historical records, a total of over 100 excursions are recorded. The entry for the 12th day of the 2nd month of the 3rd year of Konin (812) in the Nihon Koki states, "The festival of flower viewing begins here," confirming that the garden was positioned as an institutionalized place for banquets during the era of Emperor Saga. Here, poetry banquets and bugaku were held with subjects, and its character as a place demonstrating the cultural authority of royal authority was emphasized.
The events held within the garden were diverse, and sumo, archery, and boating are recorded. The Ruiju Kokushi contains an article about Emperor Saga composing poetry with his subjects, showing that Shinsen-en also functioned as a place for literary exchange. These events were not merely entertainment but ritual performances demonstrating the cultural refinement of royal authority, and they carried political significance in adjusting relationships with subjects. The garden was a symbolic space for royal authority and at the same time a place that embodied cultural authority.

However, Shinsen-en in the early Heian period did not stop at being a place for banquets but transformed into a religious space that responded to social crises. On the 17th day of the 9th month of the 4th year of Jogan (862), it is recorded that Shinsen-en was opened to the common people during a drought, showing signs that the closed nature of the forbidden garden was being relaxed. This was a groundbreaking situation where the symbolic space of royal authority was opened to the public to respond to social crises, and it became a foreshadowing for the holding of the Goryo-e in the following year. The fact that the garden was opened to the common people indicates that the rituals of royal authority had begun to have social functions, and it tells us that the character of the forbidden garden had transformed significantly.
Shinsen-en was also a space deeply connected to water. The structure of the garden, centered on the Hojoju-ike, was used for boating and rain-praying rituals. In the 1st year of Tencho (824), it is said that Shubin of Sai-ji Temple and Kukai of To-ji Temple competed in rain-praying rituals, and Kukai won by inviting the dragon god. According to the Nihon Koki and later legends, Shinsen-en came under the control of To-ji Temple as a result of this event, and its religious character strengthened. The process by which the garden transformed from a mere place for banquets to a place for religious rituals reflects the changes in religious views in the society of the early Heian period.
Thus, while maintaining its character as a place for banquets and rituals, Shinsen-en in the early Heian period transformed into a religious space that responded to social crises. By relaxing the closed nature of the forbidden garden and opening it to the public, the garden shifted from a symbolic space of royal authority to a place with social functions. This transformation is an important background directly linked to the holding of the Goryo-e in the 5th year of Jogan (863), and it can be said that it prepared the opportunity for Shinsen-en to become a stage deeply involved in the formation of the concept of vengeful spirits and the development of Goryo belief in Heian society.

3. Background of the Goryo-e of the 5th Year of Jogan

Shinsen-en in the early Heian period was a symbolic space of royal authority and was simultaneously transforming into a religious place that responded to social crises. Symbolizing this turning point is the Goryo-e, which was held for the first time in the 5th year of Jogan (863). Deeply involved in the background of this ritual were the epidemics that were rampant in the society of the time and the ideology that attributed them to the curses of vengeful spirits.
According to the entry for the 20th day of the 5th month of the 5th year of Jogan in the Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, Emperor Seiwa considered the cause of the epidemic to be the curses of vengeful spirits and held a Goryo-e at Shinsen-en. The six individuals considered to be vengeful spirits were Emperor Sudo (Prince Sawara), Prince Iyo, Fujiwara no Yoshiko, Fujiwara no Nakanari (considered an inspector), Tachibana no Hayanari, and Funya no Miyatamaro, all of whom were figures who met with political incidents or untimely deaths. The fact that it was believed their spirits brought disaster to the capital is an important case showing the formation of the concept of vengeful spirits in Heian society.
In the background of the belief in vengeful spirits was a social situation where the order of the Ritsuryo state had begun to waver. Since the reign of Emperor Kanmu, there were not a few imperial family members and nobles who met with tragic deaths amidst political confrontations and power struggles, and it came to be thought that their spirits brought disasters to the capital. In particular, Prince Sawara was a person who, despite being the younger brother of Emperor Kanmu, was implicated in the Fujiwara no Tanetsugu assassination incident, was deposed as crown prince, and died of indignation on the way to being exiled to Awaji. Because repeated disasters occurred during the reign of Emperor Kanmu after his death, the vengeful spirit of Prince Sawara came to be feared as an existence that threatened the state. This concept of vengeful spirits was formed as a result of political incidents in Heian-kyo and social anxiety being linked.
Also, in the Jogan period, the institutional fatigue of the Ritsuryo state became prominent, and the instability of local governance and financial difficulties became serious. The destabilization of social order became a factor that strengthened the ideology of attributing disasters and epidemics to the curses of vengeful spirits. Rituals to appease vengeful spirits also functioned as a means to maintain political order, and they were institutionalized as religious devices for royal authority to respond to social crises. The Goryo-e was the first concrete form of this, and it is groundbreaking in that royal authority publicly recognized vengeful spirits and attempted to appease them through rituals.
There is also meaning in Shinsen-en being chosen as the stage for the Goryo-e. The garden was a symbolic space of royal authority as a forbidden garden and was simultaneously a religious place connected to water. Because there was a precedent of it being opened to the common people during droughts and epidemics, its character as a place to respond to social crises had already been formed. The fact that the Goryo-e was held at Shinsen-en symbolizes the process by which the ritual space of royal authority transformed into a religious place that responded to social crises. The fact that the four gates of the garden were opened and the common people could watch the rituals is noted as an instance where the rituals of royal authority were opened to the public for the first time.
Thus, in the background of the Goryo-e of the 5th year of Jogan, multiple factors such as the formation of the concept of vengeful spirits, the institutional fatigue of the Ritsuryo state, and the response to social crises overlapped. The Goryo-e was not merely a religious ritual but a ritual with political significance in which royal authority appeased vengeful spirits to maintain social order, and it can be said to be an indispensable event for understanding the spiritual history of Heian society.

4. Implementation and Ritual Structure of the Goryo-e at Shinsen-en

The Goryo-e held at Shinsen-en in the 5th year of Jogan (863) was the first to be conducted on a state level as a ritual for appeasing vengeful spirits in Heian-kyo, and the specific structure of its implementation had a major influence on the development of Goryo belief in later ages. The entry for the 20th day of the 5th month of that year in the Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku records that altars were set up in Shinsen-en and that sutra chanting and bugaku were dedicated to comfort the six spirits considered to be vengeful. The four gates of the garden were opened, and it is said that the common people could freely enter and watch the rituals, and there was a breakthrough in that the rituals of royal authority were opened to the public for the first time.
The center of the ritual was the sacrifice to appease the vengeful spirits. Monks lined up at the altars, and while comforting the spirits through sutra chanting, bugaku and sangaku were dedicated. These performing arts were not merely entertainment but were positioned as religious acts to comfort the spirits. It is noteworthy that the banquet-like elements seen in the Nihon Koki and Ruiju Kokushi are reconstructed here as part of the soul-pacification ritual. The process by which Shinsen-en, a place for banquets, transformed into a place for soul-pacification was reflected in the ritual structure.
The six spirits targeted in the Goryo-e were all figures who met with political incidents or untimely deaths. Emperor Sudo (Prince Sawara) died of indignation as a deposed crown prince, Prince Iyo committed suicide after being implicated in the Fujiwara no Nakanari incident, and Fujiwara no Yoshiko met with an untimely death despite being the consort of Emperor Kanmu. Tachibana no Hayanari was exiled in the Jowa Incident, and Funya no Miyatamaro also died after falling from power. Appeasing their spirits was also a means for royal authority to ritually process past political confrontations and maintain social order. The Goryo-e became the catalyst for publicly recognizing vengeful spirits and institutionalizing their pacification as a state ritual.
In the structure of the ritual, the collaboration between royal authority and Buddhism can be seen. Sutra chanting by monks showed elements of Buddhist soul-pacification, and bugaku and sangaku incorporated elements of court culture. Shinsen-en functioned as a symbolic space of royal authority and simultaneously as a place for Buddhist rituals, and the ritual of soul-pacification was established through the combination of the two. This is a case that concretely shows the connection between religion and politics in Heian society, and it had important meaning directly linked to the institutionalization of Goryo belief.
Furthermore, the fact that the four gates of the garden were opened and the common people could watch the rituals became an opportunity for the rituals of royal authority to be shared socially. Conventionally, the forbidden garden was a space open only to the Emperor and court officials, but by the public participating in the Goryo-e, it was visually shown that the ritual of soul-pacification was directly linked to the maintenance of social order. The structure where the rituals of royal authority were opened to the public to respond to social crises became the foundation for Goryo belief rooted in urban society, such as the later Gion Festival.
Thus, the implementation and ritual structure of the Goryo-e at Shinsen-en concretely show the process by which the symbolic space of royal authority transformed into a place that took on religious and social functions. The ritual of soul-pacification was established through the collaboration of royal authority and Buddhism, and by being opened to the public, it played a role in maintaining social order. The Goryo-e was not merely a religious ritual but a state ritual aimed at the reconstruction of political order, and its structure has become an indispensable element for understanding the spiritual history of Heian society.

5. Shinsen-en after the Goryo-e and the Development of Goryo Belief

The Goryo-e of the 5th year of Jogan (863) was a landmark event in which a ritual for pacifying vengeful spirits was conducted for the first time on a national scale, with Shinsen-en Garden as its stage. Tracing the subsequent history of Shinsen-en reveals that this ritual was not a one-time occurrence, but rather a catalyst that promoted the institutionalization of Goryo belief (belief in vengeful spirits) in Heian-kyo and its penetration into urban society. From then on, Goryo-e rituals were repeatedly held in various parts of Heian-kyo, and rituals to appease vengeful spirits became established in urban society.
According to the 'Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku' (Veritable Records of Three Reigns of Japan) and later historical materials, Goryo-e became a regular event after the Jogan period, and individuals considered to be vengeful spirits came to be worshipped as Goryo deities. Emperor Sudo (Prince Sawara) was enshrined at Goryo Shrine, and Prince Iyo and Fujiwara no Yoshiko were similarly deified. As a result, vengeful spirits were no longer merely objects of fear, but were accepted by society as beings to be appeased through ritual. The Goryo-e at Shinsen-en was the starting point of this institutionalization, and it was highly significant that the royal authority officially recognized vengeful spirits and established a framework for dealing with them through ritual.
Shinsen-en itself declined after the end of the Heian period and was devastated by the turmoil of the Northern and Southern Courts and the Onin War. Attempts were made to restore it during the Keicho era, and it was maintained as a temple during the Edo period, but it has experienced repeated destruction by the Great Tenmei Fire and fires in the Showa era. Nevertheless, Shinsen-en has continued to retain the memory of being the stage for the Goryo-e, and has been preserved as a cultural asset since the modern era. The fact that the entire garden is designated as a National Historic Site is an indication of its historical significance.
The tradition of the Goryo-e spread from Shinsen-en into urban society and became established as the Gion Festival. The Gion Festival is a ritual that originated from the Goryo-e of the Jogan period, performed by the people of the capital to appease vengeful spirits and prevent epidemics. The fact that the Goryo-e at Shinsen-en was opened to the public encouraged the sharing of Goryo belief in urban society and led directly to the establishment of urban festivals like the Gion Festival. Goryo belief became a defining element of the religious culture of Heian-kyo and played an indispensable role in maintaining order in urban society.
Shinsen-en transformed from an imperial garden into a religious space and played a role in spreading Goryo belief to urban society through the Goryo-e. Throughout its subsequent history, Shinsen-en continued to preserve the memory of the Goryo-e and continued to influence the religious culture of urban society. Tracing the path of Shinsen-en after the Goryo-e is essential for understanding the development of the view of vengeful spirits in Heian society and the establishment of urban festivals, and it makes one realize once again the weight of the role played by the site of Shinsen-en.

Conclusion

Shinsen-en remained a symbolic space of royal authority from its inception as an imperial garden of Heian-kyo, but its character changed significantly with the Goryo-e of the 5th year of Jogan (863). The fact that a garden designed as a place for banquets turned into a stage for rituals to appease vengeful spirits is a symbolic example of royal authority utilizing religious space to respond to social crises. The process by which rituals to appease vengeful spirits were institutionalized as national events and spread to urban society became indispensable for understanding the spiritual history of Heian society.
The Goryo-e was established through the cooperation of royal authority and Buddhism, and by being opened to the public, it played a role in maintaining social order. The symbolism and flexibility of the Shinsen-en site allowed Goryo belief to permeate urban society, leading to later urban festivals such as the Gion Festival. The history of Shinsen-en, which transformed from an imperial garden to a religious space and then to a shared space for urban society, continues to shine uniquely in the history of Heian-kyo.
Tracing the history surrounding Shinsen-en and the Goryo-e is not just about reading records of past rituals, but also an attempt to understand a place where royal authority and society, and religion and urban culture, intersected. There, one can see the prayers of people trying to appease vengeful spirits and the will of royal authority trying to maintain order overlapping, forming the spiritual foundation of Heian society. Shinsen-en was its symbolic stage, and the Goryo-e was the event that showed its core.