Hostname: page-component-5db58dd55d-smskv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-06-11T19:54:30.880Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Surface-Compositional Semantics of English Intonation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2026

Mark Steedman
Mark Steedman*
Affiliation:
University of Edinburgh
*
University of Edinburgh School of Informatics 10 Crichton Street Edinburgh, United Kingdom [steedman@inf.ed.ac.uk]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article proposes a syntax and a semantics for intonation in English and some related languages. The semantics is ‘surface-compositional’, in the sense that syntactic derivation constructs information-structural logical form monotonically, without rules of structural revision, and without autonomous rules of ‘focus projection’. This is made possible by the generalized notion of syntactic constituency afforded by combinatory categorial grammar (CCG)—in particular, the fact that its rules are restricted to string-adjacent type-driven combination. In this way, the grammar unites intonation structure and information structure with surface-syntactic derivational structure and Montague-style compositional semantics, even when they deviate radically from traditional surface structure.

The article revises and extends earlier CCG-based accounts of intonational semantics, grounding hitherto informal notions like ‘theme’ and ‘rheme’ (a.k.a. ‘topic’ and ‘comment’, ‘presupposition’ and ‘focus’, etc.) and ‘background’ and ‘contrast’ (a.k.a. ‘given’ and ‘new’, ‘focus’, etc.) in a logic of speaker/hearer supposition andupdate, usingaversion of Rooth's alternative semantics. A CCG grammar fragment is defined that constrains language-specific intonation and its interpretation more narrowly than previous attempts.

Keywords

intonation structureinformation structuresecond-occurrence focuscombinatory categorial grammar (CCG)syntaxsemantics

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Language , Volume 90 , Issue 1 , March 2014 , pp. 2 - 57
Copyright
Copyright © 2014 Linguistic Society of America

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

*

Preliminary versions of some of these ideas were presented under various titles at the Conference on Focus and Natural Language Processing at Schloß Wolfsbrunnen (Steedman 1994, 2000a), the LSA Summer Institute Workshop on Topic and Focus, Santa Barbara, July 2001 (Steedman 2007), the 2nd International Conference on Linguistic Evidence, Tübingen, February 2006, and the CHC Workshop on the Prosody-Syntax Interface, UCL, October 2006, and in talks at OSU in 2006, and at Penn, NYU, Cornell, UT Austin, and Northwestern in 2007. Thanks to the audiences there, and to Sasha Calhoun, Chris Geib, Rob Clark, Stephen Isard, Aravind Joshi, Kordula de Kuthy, Bob Ladd, Alex Lascarides, Detmar Meurers, Ron Petrick, Steve Pulman, Geoff Pullum, Craige Roberts, Mats Rooth, Matthew Stone, Alice Turk, and Bonnie Webber, and to the referees for Language. The work was supported at different stages by ERC Advanced Fellowship 249520 GRAMPLUS, EC FP7 IP grant 270273 Xperience, the Edinburgh-Stanford Link grant Sounds of Discourse from the Scottish Executive, and by a sabbatical leave in 2006-7 at the University of Pennsylvania granted by the University of Edinburgh.

References

Antinucci, Francesco, and Cinque, Guglielmo. 1977. Sull'ordine delle parole in italiano: L'emarginazione. Studi di Grammatica Italiana 6. 121–46.Google Scholar
Bach, Emmon. 1979. Control in Montague grammar. Linguistic Inquiry 10. 513–31.Google Scholar
Bach, Emmon. 1980. In defense of passive. Linguistics and Philosophy 3. 297–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldridge, Jason, and Kruijff, Geert-Jan. 2003. Multi-modal combinatory categorial grammar. Proceedings of 11th conference of the European chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Budapest, 211–18.Google Scholar
Bard, Ellen Gurman, Anderson, Anne, Sotillo, Catherine, Aylett, Matthew, Doherty-Sneddon, Gwyneth; and Newlands, Alison. 2000. Controlling the intelligibility of referring expressions in dialogue. Journal of Memory and Language 42. 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bard, Ellen Gurman, and Aylett, Matthew. 2005. Referential form, duration, and modelling the listener in spoken dialogue. Approaches to studying world-situated language use: Bridging the language-as-product and language-as-action traditions, ed. by Trueswell, John and Tanenhaus, Michael, 173–91. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Bartels, Christine. 1997. Towards a compositional interpretation of English statement and question intonation. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, Amherst dissertation.Google Scholar
Beaver, David I. 2001. Presupposition and assertion in dynamic semantics. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.Google Scholar
Beaver, David I., and Clark, Brady Z.. 2008. Sense and sensitivity: How focus determines meaning. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaver, David I., Clark, Brady Zack, Flemming, Edward, Jaeger, T. Florian; and Wolters, Maria. 2007. When semantics meets phonetics: Acoustical studies of second-occurrence focus. Language 83. 245–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckman, Mary, and Hirschberg, Julia. 1999. The ToBI annotation conventions. The ToBI annotation conventions: The Ohio State University. Online: http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/∼tobi/ame_tobi/.Google Scholar
Beckman, Mary, Hirschberg, Julia; and Shattuck-Huffnagel, Stephanie. 2005. The original ToBI system and the evolution of the ToBI framework. Prosodic typology: The phonology of intonation and phrasing, vol. 1, ed. by Jun, Sun-Ah, 9–54. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bing, Janet. 1979. Aspects of English prosody. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, Amherst dissertation. [Published, New York: Garland, 1985.].Google Scholar
Błaszczak, Joanna, and Gärtner, Hans-Martin. 2005. Intonational phrasing, discontinuity, and the scope of negation. Syntax 8. 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight. 1958. A theory of pitch accent in English. Word 14. 109–49. [Reprinted in Bolinger 1965, 17-56.].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight. 1961. Contrastive accent and contrastive stress. Language 37. 83–96. [Reprinted in Bolinger 1965, 101-17.].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight. 1965. Forms of English. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight. 1972a. Accent is predictable (if you're a mind-reader). Language 48. 633–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight (ed.) 1972b. Intonation: Selected readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight. 1977. Review of Schmerling 1976. Computational Linguistics: The Finite String 14. 5. 2–24. Online: http://aclweb.org/anthology/J/J79/J79-1068.pdf.Google Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight. 1986. Intonation and its parts. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Bolinger, Dwight. 1989. Intonation and its uses. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braun, Bettina. 2006. Phonetics and phonology of thematic contrast in German. Language and Speech 49. 451–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brazil, David. 1975. Discourse intonation. (Discourse analysis monograph 1.) Birmingham: University of Birmingham.Google Scholar
Brazil, David. 1978. Discourse intonation II. (Discourse analysis monograph 2.) Birmingham: University of Birmingham.Google Scholar
Brazil, David. 1997. The communicative value of intonation in English. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Breen, Mara, Fedorenko, Evelina, Wagner, Michael; and Gibson, Edward. 2010. Acoustic correlates of information structure. Language and Cognitive Processes 25. 1044–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Gillian. 1983. Prosodic structure and the given/new distinction. Prosody: Models and measurements, ed. by Cutler, Anne, Ladd, D. Robert, and Brown, Gillian, 67–77. Berlin: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brugos, Alejna, Veilleux, Nanette, Breen, Mara; and Shattuck-Hufnagel, Stephanie. 2008. The alternatives (alt) tier for ToBI: Advantages of capturing prosodic ambiguity. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2008, Campinas, 273–76.Google Scholar
Büring, Daniel. 1997a. The great scope inversion conspiracy. Linguistics and Philosophy 20. 175–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Büring, Daniel. 1997b. The meaning of topic and focus: The 59th Street Bridge accent. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Büring, Daniel. 2003. On d-trees, beans, and B-accents. Linguistics and Philosophy 26. 511–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Büring, Daniel. 2007. Semantics, intonation, and information structure. The Oxford handbook of linguistic interfaces, ed. by Ramchand, Gillian and Reiss, Charles, 445–73. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Büring, Daniel. 2010. Towards a typology of focus realization. Information structure: Theoretical, typological, and experimental perspectives, ed. by Zimmermann, Malte and Féry, Caroline, 177–205. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Büring, Daniel. 2013. Syntax, information structure, and prosody. The Cambridge handbook of generative syntax, ed. by Dikken, Marcel den, 860–96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Calhoun, Sasha. 2006. Intonation and information structure in English. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Calhoun, Sasha. 2010. The centrality of metrical structure in signaling information structure: A probabilistic perspective. Language 86. 1–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calhoun, Sasha, Carletta, Jean, Brenier, Jason m., Mayo, Neil, Jurafsky, Dan, Steedman, Mark; and Beaver, David. 2010. The NXT-format Switchboard corpus: A rich resource for investigating the syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and prosody of dialogue. Language Resources and Evaluation 44. 387–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassell, Justine, Pelachaud, Catherine, Badler, Norm, Steedman, Mark, Achorn, Brett, Becket, Tripp, Douville, Brett, Prevost, Scott; and Stone, Matthew. 1994. Animated conversation: Rule-based generation of facial expression, gesture and spoken intonation for multiple conversational agents. Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH ’94 Conference, Orlando, 413–20.Google Scholar
Chao, Yuen Ren. 1968. A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1971. Deep structure, surface structure, and semantic interpretation. Semantics, ed. by Steinberg, Danny and Jakobovits, Leon, 183–216. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1975 [1955]. The logical structure of linguistic theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1995. The minimalist program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Cinque, Guglielmo. 1993. A null theory of phrase and compound stress. Linguistic Inquiry 24. 239–97.Google Scholar
Clark, Herbert. 1996. Using language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Herbert, and Krych, Meredith. 2004. Speaking while monitoring addressees for understanding. Journal of Memory and Language 50. 62–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Herbert, and Marshall, Catherine. 1981. Definite reference and mutual knowledge. Elements of discourse understanding, ed. by Joshi, Aravind, Webber, Bonnie, and Sag, Ivan, 10–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Clark, Stephen, and Curran, James R.. 2004. Parsing the WSJ using CCG and log-linear models. Proceedings of the 42nd annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 104–11.Google Scholar
Cohen, Philip. 1978. On knowing what to say: Planning speech acts. Toronto: University of Toronto dissertation.Google Scholar
Cohen, Philip, and Levesque, Hector. 1990. Rational interaction as the basis for communication. In Cohen, et al., 221–55.Google Scholar
Cohen, Philip, Morgan, Jerry; and Pollack, Martha (eds.) 1990. Intentions in communication. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Constant, Noah. 2006. English rise-fall-rise: A study in the semantics and pragmatics of intonation. English rise-fall-rise: A study in the semantics and pragmatics of intonation: University of California, Santa Cruz master's thesis. Online: http ://semanticsarchive.net/Archive/.Google Scholar
Cooper, Grosvenor, and Meyer, Leonard B.. 1963. The rhythmic structure of music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cresswell, Max. 1973. Logics and languages. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Cresswell, Max. 1985. Structured meanings. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Croft, William. 1995. Intonational units and grammatical units. Linguistics 33. 839–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crosby, Bing, Teagarden, Jack; and Martin, Mary. 1941. The waiter and the porter and the upstairs maid. Decca DLA 2411–1.Google Scholar
Cutler, Anne. 1977. The context-independence of ‘intonational meaning’. Chicago Linguistic Society 13. 104–15.Google Scholar
Dalrymple, Mary, and Mycock, Louise. 2011. The prosody semantics interface. Proceedings of the LFG ’11 Conference, 173–93. Online: http://www.stanford.edu/group/cslipublications/cslipublications/LFG/16/.Google Scholar
Denes, Peter. 1959. A preliminary investigation of certain aspects of intonation. Language and Speech 2. 106–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deniston, John Dewar. 1934. The Greek particles. Oxford: Clarendon.Google Scholar
Dowty, David. 1982. Grammatical relations and Montague grammar. The nature of syntactic representation, ed. by Jacobson, Pauline and Pullum, Geoffrey K., 79–130. Dordrecht: Reidel.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drubig, H. Bernhard. 2003. Toward a typology of focus and focus constructions. Linguistics 41. 1–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisner, Jason. 1996. Efficient normal-form parsing for combinatory categorial grammar. Proceedings of the 34th annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 79–86.Google Scholar
Erteschik-Shir, Nomi. 1997. The dynamics of focus structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Erteschik-Shir, Nomi. 1998. The syntax-focus structure interface. Syntax and semantics, vol. 29: The limits of syntax, ed. by Culicover, Peter and McNally, Louise, 212–40. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Féry, Caroline. 1993. German intonational patterns. Tübingen: Niemeyer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Féry, Caroline, and Samek-Lodovici, Vieri. 2006. Focus projection and prosodic prominence in nested foci. Language 82. 131–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Féry, Caroline, and Truckenbrodt, Hubert. 2005. Sisterhood and tonal scaling. Studia Linguistica 59. 223–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freud, Sigmund. 1925. Negation. The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 19: ‘The ego and the id’ and other works, ed. by Strachey, James, 235–39. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Gärdenfors, Peter (ed.) 1992. Belief revision. (Cambridge tracts in theoretical computer science 29.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gärtner, Hans-Martin. 2012. Function composition and the linear local modeling of extended NEG-scope. Local modelling of non-local dependencies in syntax, ed. by Alexiadou, Artemis, Kiss, Tibor, and Müller, Gereon, 337–52. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.Google Scholar
Geis, Michael. 1995. Speech acts and conversational interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
German, James, Pierrehumbert, Janet; and Kaufmann, Stefan. 2006. Evidence for phonological constraints on nuclear accent placement. Language 82. 151–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ginzburg, Jonathan. 1996. Interrogatives: Questions, facts, and dialogue. The handbook of contemporary semantic theory, ed. by Lappin, Shalom, 385–422. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Green, Nancy, and Carberry, Sandra. 1994. A hybrid reasoning model for indirect answers. Proceedings of the 32nd annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 58–65.Google Scholar
Green, Nancy, and Carberry, Sandra. 1999. Interpreting and generating indirect answers. Computational Linguistics 25. 389–435.Google Scholar
Grice, H. Paul. 1975 [1967]. Logic and conversation. Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts, ed. by Cole, Peter and Morgan, Jerry L., 41–58. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gundel, Jeanette. 1999. On different kinds of focus. Focus: Linguistic, cognitive, and computational perspectives, ed. by Bosch, Peter and van, Rob Sandt, der, 293–305. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gunlogson, Christine. 2001. True to form: Rising and falling declaratives in English. Santa Cruz: University of California, Santa Cruz dissertation.Google Scholar
Gunlogson, Christine. 2002. Declarative questions. Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory (SALT) 12. 124–43. Online: http://elanguage.net/journals/salt/issue/view/295.Google Scholar
Gussenhoven, Carlos. 1983a. On the grammar and semantics of sentence accent. Dordrecht: Foris.Google Scholar
Gussenhoven, Carlos. 1983b. Testing the reality of focus domains. Language and Speech 26. 61–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gussenhoven, Carlos. 2007. Types of focus in English. Topic and focus: Crosslinguistic perspectives on meaning and intonation (Studies in linguistics and philosophy 82), ed. by Lee, Chungmin, Gordon, Matthew, and Büring, Daniel, 83–100. Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HajicovÁ, Eva, and Sgall, Petr. 1988. Topic and focus of a sentence and the patterning of a text. Text and discourse constitution, ed. by Petöfi, János, 70–96. Berlin: de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HajicovÁ, Eva, Skoumalová, Hana; and Sgall, Petr. 1995. An automatic procedure for topic-focus identification. Computational Linguistics 21. 81–94.Google Scholar
Halle, Morris, and Vergnaud, Jean-Roger. 1987. An essay on stress. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Halliday, Michael. 1963. The tones of English. Archivum Linguisticum 15. 1. 1–28.Google Scholar
Halliday, Michael. 1967a. Intonation and grammar in British English. The Hague: Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halliday, Michael. 1967b. Notes on transitivity and theme in English, part ii. Journal of Linguistics 3. 199–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hausser, Roland. 1984. Surface compositional grammar. Munich: Wilhelm Fink.Google Scholar
Hedberg, Nancy. 2006. Topic-focus controversies. The architecture of focus, ed. by Molnár, Valéria and Winkler, Susanne, 373–98. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hedberg, Nancy, and Sosa, Juan M.. 2007. The prosody of topic and focus in spontaneous English dialogue. Topic and focus: Crosslinguistic perspectives on meaning and intonation (Studies in linguistics and philosophy 82), ed. by Lee, Chungmin, Gordon, Matthew, and Büring, Daniel, 101–20. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Higashikawa, Masahiko, and Minifie, Fred. 1999. Acoustical-perceptual correlates of ‘whisper pitch’ in synthetically generated vowels. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 42. 583–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ho, Yong. 1993. Aspects of discourse structure in Mandarin Chinese. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen.Google Scholar
Hobbs, Jerry. 1990. The Pierrehumbert-Hirschberg theory of intonational meaning made simple: Comments on Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg. In Cohen, et al., 313–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hockenmaier, Julia, and Steedman, Mark. 2002. Generative models for statistical parsing with combinatory categorial grammar. Proceedings of the 40th annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 335–42.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Beryl. 1995a. Computational analysis of the syntax and interpretation of ‘free’ word-order in Turkish. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania dissertation. [Published as IRCS report 95-17, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.].Google Scholar
Hoffman, Beryl. 1995b. Integrating free word order, syntax, and information structure. Proceedings of the 7 th conference of the European chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Dublin, 245–52.Google Scholar
Hole, Daniel P. 2004. Focus and background marking in Mandarin Chinese: System and theory behind cái, jiù, dōu and yĕ. London: RoutledgeCurzon.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howell, Jonathan. 2008. Second occurrence focus and the acoustics of prominence. West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL) 26. 252–60.Google Scholar
Ito, Kiwako, and Speer, Shari. 2008. Anticipatory effects of intonation: Eye movements during instructed visual search. Journal of Memory and Language 58. 541–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackendoff, Ray. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Joachim. 1991. Focus ambiguities. Journal of Semantics 8. 1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, Pauline. 1992. Flexible categorial grammars: Questions and prospects. Formal grammar, ed. by Levine, Robert, 129–67. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jaeger, T. Florian, and Wagner, Michael. 2003. Association with focus and linear order in German. Association with focus and linear order in German: Stanford University, ms.Google Scholar
Joshi, Aravind. 1990. Phrase structure and intonational phrases: Comments on the chapters by Marcus and Steedman. Cognitive models of speech processing: Psycholinguistic and cognitive perspectives, ed. by Altmann, Gerry, 513–31. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Kaisse, Ellen. 1985. Connected speech: The interaction of syntax and phonology. Orlando: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Karttunen, Lauri. 1976. Discourse referents. Syntax and semantics, vol. 7: Notes from the linguistic underground, ed. by McCawley, James, 363–85. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Karttunen, Lauri. 1977. Syntax and semantics of questions. Linguistics and Philosophy 1. 3–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karttunen, Lauri, and Peters, Stanley. 1979. Conventional implicature. Syntax and semantics, vol. 11: Presupposition, ed. by Oh, Choon-Kyu and Dinneen, David, 1–56. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Katz, Jonah, and Selkirk, Elisabeth. 2011. Contrastive focus vs. discourse-new: Evidence from phonetic prominence in English. Language 87. 771–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keysar, Boaz, Lin, Shuhong; and Barr, Dale. 2003. Limits on theory of mind use in adults. Cognition 89. 25–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Komagata, Nobo. 1999. Information structure in texts: A computational analysis of contextual appropriateness in English and Japanese. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania dissertation.Google Scholar
König, Esther. 1994. A hypothetical reasoning algorithm for linguistic analysis. Journal of Logic and Computation 4. 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratzer, Angelika. 1991. The representation of focus. Semantics: An international handbook of contemporary research, ed. by Stechow, Arnim von and Wunderlich, Dieter, 825–34. Berlin: de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Krifka, Manfred. 1991. A compositional semantics for multiple focus constructions. Cornell Working Papers in Linguistics 10. 127–58.Google Scholar
Krifka, Manfred. 2002 [1996]. Focus and/or context: A second look at second occurrence focus. Context-dependence in the analysis of linguistic meaning, ed. by Kamp, Hans and Partee, Barbara H., 187–207. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Kruijff-KorbayovÁ, Ivana, and Steedman, Mark. 2003. Discourse and information structure. Journal of Logic, Language, and Information 12. 249–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladd, D. Robert. 1980. The structure of intonational meaning. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Ladd, D. Robert. 1988. Declination ‘reset’ and the hierarchical organization of utterances. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 84. 530–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladd, D. Robert. 1996. Intonational phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ladd, D. Robert. 2008. Intonational phonology. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladd, D. Robert, and Schepman, Astrid. 2003. ‘Sagging transitions’ between high pitch accents in English: Experimental evidence. Journal of Phonetics 31. 81–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahiri, Aditi, and Plank, Frans. 2010. Phonological phrasing in Germanic: The judgement of history, confirmed through experiment. Transactions of the Philological Society 108. 370–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambrecht, Knud, and Michaelis, Laura A.. 1998. Sentence accent in information questions: Default and projection. Linguistics and Philosophy 21. 477–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, David. 1969. Convention: A philosophical study. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Liang, Percy, Jordan, Michael; and Klein, Dan. 2011. Learning dependency-based compositional semantics. Proceedings of the 49th annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, 590–99.Google Scholar
Liberman, Mark. 1975. The intonational system of English. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation. [Published, New York: Garland, 1979.].Google Scholar
Liberman, Mark, and Pierrehumbert, Janet. 1984. Intonational invariance under changes in pitch range and length. Language sound structure, ed. by Aronoff, Mark and Oerhle, Richard, 157–233. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Luke, Kang Kwong. 1990. Utterance particles in Cantonese. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, William, and Thompson, Sandra. 1987. Rhetorical structure theory: A framework for the analysis of texts. Rhetorical structure theory: A framework for the analysis of texts: Information Science Institute.Google Scholar
Maynard, Senko. 1999. Discourse analysis and pragmatics. The handbook of Japanese linguistics, ed. by Tsujimura, Natsuko, 425–43. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Meurers, Detmar, and de Kuthy, Kordula. 2005. Formal approaches to the interface of syntax and information structure. Lecture notes, LOT Winter School, Groningen.Google Scholar
Meyer-Eppler, W. 1957. Realization of prosodic features in whispered speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 29. 104–6. [Reprinted in Bolinger 1972b, 385-90.].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neeleman, Ad, and Szendroi, Kriszta. 2004. Superman sentences. Linguistic Inquiry 35. 149–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nespor, Marina. 1990. On the separation of prosodic and rhythmic phonology. The phonology-syntax connection, ed. by Inkelas, Sharon and Zec, Draga, 243–58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Nespor, Marina, and Vogel, Irene. 1986. Prosodic phonology. Dordrecht: Foris.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Hannele, and Teig, Andreas. 2003. How to tell beans from farmers: Cues to the perception of pitch accent in whispered Norwegian. Tromsø Working Papers in Linguistics 31. 315–25.Google Scholar
NilsenovÁ, Marie. 2006. Rises and falls: Studies in the semantics and pragmatics of intonation. Amsterdam: ILLC, Universiteit van Amsterdam dissertation.Google Scholar
Oehrle, Richard. 1988. Multidimensional compositional functions as a basis for grammatical analysis. Categorial grammars and natural language structures, ed. by Oehrle, Richard, Bach, Emmon, and Wheeler, Deirdre, 349–90. Dordrecht: Reidel.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostendorf, Mari, and Veilleux, Nanette. 1994. A hierarchical stochastic model for automatic prediction of prosodic boundary location. Computational Linguistics 20. 27–54.Google Scholar
Özge, Umut. 2003. A tune-based account of Turkish information structure. A tune-based account of Turkish information structure: Middle East Technical University, Ankara master's thesis. Online: http://www.ii.metu.edu.tr/∼umut/.Google Scholar
Partee, Barbara. 1991. Topic, focus, and quantification. Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory (SALT) 1. 159–87. Online: http://elanguage.net/journals/salt/issue/view/285.Google Scholar
Partee, Barbara. 1999. Focus, quantification, and semantics-pragmatics issues. Focus: Linguistic, cognitive, and computational perspectives, ed. by Bosch, Peter and van, Rob Sandt, der, 213–31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pate, John, and Goldwater, Sharon. 2011. Unsupervised syntactic chunking with acoustic cues: Computational models for prosodic bootstrapping. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Cognitive Modeling and Computational Linguistics, 20–29. Portland: Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
Pierrehumbert, Janet. 1980. The phonology and phonetics of English intonation. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation. [Distributed by the Indiana University Linguistics Club.].Google Scholar
Pierrehumbert, Janet, and Hirschberg, Julia. 1990. The meaning of intonational contours in the interpretation of discourse. In Cohen, et al., 271–312.Google Scholar
Pitrelli, John. 2004. ToBI prosodic analysis of a professional speaker of American English. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2004, 557–60.Google Scholar
Poesio, Massimo, and Traum, David R.. 1997. Conversational actions and discourse situations. Computational Intelligence 13. 309–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prevost, Scott, and Steedman, Mark. 1994. Specifying intonation from context for speech synthesis. Speech Communication 15. 139–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prince, Alan. 1983. Relating to the grid. Linguistic Inquiry 14. 19–100.Google Scholar
Prince, Ellen. 1981. Towards a taxonomy of given-new information. Radical pragmatics, ed. by Cole, Peter, 223–56. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Pulman, Stephen. 1997. Higher order unification and the interpretation of focus. Linguistics and Philosophy 20. 73–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pulman, Stephen. 1999. Relating dialogue games to information states. Proceedings of European Speech Communication Association workshop on Dialogue and Prosody, De Konigshof, The Netherlands, 17–24.Google Scholar
Roberts, Craige. 1996. Information structure in discourse: Towards an integrated formal theory of pragmatics. OSU Working Papers in Linguistics 49. 91–136. [Published as Roberts 2012a.].Google Scholar
Roberts, Craige. 2012a. Information structure in discourse: Towards an integrated formal theory of pragmatics. Semantics and Pragmatics 5. 6. 1–69. Online: http://semprag.org/article/view/sp.5.6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Craige. 2012b. Information structure: Afterword. Semantics and Pragmatics 5. 7. 1–19. Online: http://semprag.org/article/view/sp.5.7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rochemont, Michael. 1986. Focus in generative grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rochemont, Michael, and Culicover, Peter. 1990. English focus constructions and the theory of grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rooth, Mats. 1985. Association with focus. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, Amherst dissertation.Google Scholar
Rooth, Mats. 1992. A theory of focus interpretation. Natural Language Semantics 1. 75–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rooth, Mats. 1996a. On the interface principles for intonational focus. Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory (SALT) 6. 202–26. Online: http://elanguage.net/journals/salt/issue/view/289.Google Scholar
Rooth, Mats. 1996b. Focus. The handbook of contemporary semantic theory, ed. by Lappin, Shalom, 271–97. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Rooth, Mats. 2005. Topic accents on quantifiers. Reference and quantification: The Partee effect, ed. by Carlson, Gregory N. and Pelletier, Francis Jeffry, 303–28. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.Google Scholar
Rooth, Mats. 2010. Second occurrence focus and relativized stress F. Information structure: Theoretical, typological, and experimental perspectives, ed. by Zimmermann, Malte and Féry, Caroline, 14–35. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Šafářová, Marie. 2005. The semantics of rising intonation in interrogatives and declaratives. Proceedings of Sinn und Bedeutung 9. 355–69.Google Scholar
Samek-Lodovici, Vieri. 2005. Prosody-syntax interaction in the expression of focus. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 23. 687–755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schauber, Ellen. 1978. Focus and presupposition: A comparison of English intonation and Navajo particle placement. Elements of tone, stress, and intonation, ed. by Napoli, Donna Jo, 144–73. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Schegloff, Emanuel. 1988. Presequences and indirection: Applying speech act theory to ordinary conversation. Journal of Pragmatics 12. 55–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schiffer, Stephen. 1972. Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmerling, Susan. 1976. Aspects of English stress. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Schubiger, Maria. 1965. English intonation and German modal particles: A comparative study. Phonetica 12. 65–84. [Reprinted in Bolinger 1972b, 175-93.].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schubiger, Maria. 1980. English intonation and German modal particles II: A comparative study. The melody of language, ed. by Waugh, Linda and van Schooneveld, C. H., 279–98. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.Google Scholar
Schwarzschild, Roger. 1999. GIVENness, AvoidF, and other constraints on the placement of accent. Natural Language Semantics 7. 141–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Searle, John. 1975. Indirect speech acts. Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts, ed. by Cole, Peter and Morgan, Jerry, 59–82. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Selkirk, Elisabeth. 1984. Phonology and syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Selkirk, Elisabeth. 1990. On the nature of prosodic constituency. Papers in laboratory phonology 1: Between the grammar and physics of speech, ed. by Kingston, John and Beckman, Mary E., 179–200. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Selkirk, Elisabeth. 1995. Sentence prosody: Intonation, stress, and phrasing. The handbook of phonological theory, ed. by Goldsmith, John, 550–69. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Sgall, Petr, Hajičová, Eva; and Benešová, Eva. 1973. Topic, focus and generative semantics. Kronberg: Scriptor.Google Scholar
Silverman, Kim, Beckman, Mary, Pitrelli, John, Ostendorf, Marie, Wightman, Colin, Price, Patti, Pierrehumbert, Janet; and Hirschberg, Julia. 1992. ToBI: A standard for labeling English prosody. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (ICSLP 92), Banff, 867–70.Google Scholar
Sperber, Dan, and Wilson, Deirdre. 1986. Relevance. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Stalnaker, Robert. 1979. Assertion. Syntax and semantics, vol. 9: Pragmatics, ed. by Cole, Peter, 315–32. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 1985. Dependency and coordination in the grammar of Dutch and English. Language 61. 523–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 1990a. Gapping as constituent coordination. Linguistics and Philosophy 13. 207–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 1990b. Structure and intonation in spoken language understanding. Proceedings of the 28th annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 9–16.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 1991. Structure and intonation. Language 67. 262–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 1994. Remarks on intonation and ‘focus’. Proceedings of the Conference on Focus and Natural Language Processing, vol. 1, 185–204.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 1996. Surface structure and interpretation. (Linguistic inquiry monograph 30.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 2000a. Information structure and the syntax-phonology interface. Linguistic Inquiry 34. 649–89.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 2000b. The syntactic process. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 2007. Information-structural semantics for English intonation. Topic and focus: Crosslinguistic perspectives on meaning and intonation (Studies in linguistics and philosophy 82), ed. by Lee, Chungmin, Gordon, Matthew, and Büring, Daniel, 245–64. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark. 2012. Taking scope: The natural semantics of quantifiers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark, and Johnson-Laird, Philip. 1980. Utterances, sentences, and speechacts: Have computers anything to say? Language production, vol. 1: Speech and talk, ed. by Butterworth, Brian, 111–41. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Steedman, Mark, and Petrick, Ron. 2007. Planning dialog actions. Proceedings of the 8th SIGdial Workshop on Discourse and Dialogue, 265–72.Google Scholar
Stone, Matthew. 1998. Modality in dialogue: Planning pragmatics and computation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania dissertation.Google Scholar
Stone, Matthew. 2004. Intention, interpretation, and the computational structure of language. Cognitive Science 28. 781–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Syrdal, Ann, and McGory, Julia. 2000. Inter-transcriber reliability of ToBI prosodic labeling. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (ICSLP 96), Philadelphia, 235–38.Google Scholar
Szendroi, Kriszta. 2001. Focus and the syntax-phonology interface. London: University College London dissertation.Google Scholar
Szendroi, Kriszta. 2004. Focus and the interaction between syntax and pragmatics. Lingua 114. 229–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taglicht, Josef. 1984. Message and emphasis. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Taylor, Paul. 2000. Analysis and synthesis of intonation using the tilt model. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107. 1697–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomason, Richmond. 2000. Modeling the beliefs of other agents: Achieving mutuality. Logic-based artificial intelligence, ed. by Minker, Jack, 375–403. Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomason, Richmond. 2001. The beliefs of other agents. The beliefs of other agents: University of Michigan, ms.Google Scholar
Truckenbrodt, Hubert. 1995. Phonological phrases: Their relation to syntax, focus, and prominence. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation.Google Scholar
Truckenbrodt, Hubert. 1999. On the relation between syntactic phrases and phonological phrases. Linguistic Inquiry 30. 219–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Truckenbrodt, Hubert. 2007. The syntax-phonology interface. The Cambridge handbook of phonology, ed. by de Lacy, Paul, 435–56. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Vallduví, Enric. 1990. The information component. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania dissertation.Google Scholar
Vallduví, Enric, and Vilkuna, Maria. 1998. On rheme and kontrast. Syntax and semantics, vol. 29: The limits of syntax, ed. by Culicover, Peter and McNally, Louise, 79–108. San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Van Kuppevelt, Jan. 1995. Discourse structure, topicality and questioning. Journal of Linguistics 31. 109–47.Google Scholar
Veilleux, Nanette, Shattuck-Hufnagel, Stephanie; and Brugos, Alejna. 2006. The ToBI tutorial. The ToBI tutorial: MIT OpenCourseWare. Online: http://anita.simmons.edu/∼tobi/index.html.Google Scholar
von Fintel, Kai. 1994. Restrictions on quantifier domains. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, Amherst dissertation.Google Scholar
von Stechow, Arnim. 1981. Topic, focus and local relevance. Crossing the boundaries in linguistics, ed. by Klein, Wolfgang and Levelt, Willem, 95–130. Dordrecht: Reidel.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Stechow, Arnim. 1991. Focusing and backgrounding operators. Discourse particles: Descriptive and theoretical investigations on the logical, syntactic and pragmatic properties of discourse particles in German, ed. by Abraham, Werner, 37–84. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, Michael. 2003. Prosody as a diagonalization of syntax: Evidence from complex predicates. North East Linguistic Society (NELS) 34. 587–602.Google Scholar
Wagner, Michael. 2005. Prosody and recursion. Cambridge, MA: MIT dissertation.Google Scholar
Wagner, Michael. 2006. Givenness and locality. Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory (SALT) 16. 295–312. Online: http://elanguage.net/journals/salt/issue/view/297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, Michael. 2008. A compositional analysis of contrastive topics. North East Linguistic Society (NELS) 38. 415–28.Google Scholar
Wagner, Michael. 2010. Prosody and recursion in coordinate structures and beyond. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 28. 183–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, Gregory, and Hirschberg, Julia. 1985. Implicating uncertainty: The pragmatics of fall-rise intonation. Language 61. 747–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, Duane, Tanenhaus, Michael; and Gunlogson, Christine. 2008. Interpreting pitch accents in online comprehension: H* vs. L+H*. Cognitive Science 32. 1232–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welby, Pauline. 2003. Effects of pitch accent position, type, and status on focus projection. Language and Speech 46. 53–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wightman, Colin. 2002. ToBI or not ToBI. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2002, Aix-en-Provence, 25–29.Google Scholar
Wilson, Deirdre, and Sperber, Dan. 1979. Ordered entailments: An alternative to presuppositional theories. Syntax and semantics, vol. 11: Presupposition, ed. by Oh, Choon-Kyu and Dinneen, David A., 299–323. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Wold, Dag. 1996. Long distance selective binding: The case of focus. Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory (SALT) 6. 311–28. Online: http://elanguage.net/journals/salt/issue/view/289.Google Scholar
Wunderlich, Dieter. 1991. Intonation and contrast. Journal of Semantics 8. 239–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zubizarreta, Maria Luisa. 1998. Prosody, focus, and word order. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Steedman supplementary material

Steedman supplementary material
Download Steedman supplementary material(File)
File 3.5 MB