The Intellectual History and Structure of the Development from Early Buddhism to Mahayana Buddhism

0. Introduction: The Transition and Structural Transformation of Buddhism

In this paper, I will provide an overview of the nature of 'enlightenment and social engagement' in Early Buddhism, starting from the oldest layers of the Pali Canon, and examine how this was inherited, developed, or transformed by the emergence of early Mahayana sutras (such as the Prajnaparamita and Lotus Sutras).

In Early Buddhism, withdrawal from the secular world was a 'means' to enlightenment, and at its destination lay a natural altruistic practice (compassion) rooted in wisdom. However, as time passed and the Nikaya schools neglected these aspects, the early Mahayana movement arose as a reaction, attempting to return Buddhism to the universal enlightenment of Shakyamuni.

On the other hand, this process of universalization brought about a paradox: it transformed enlightenment, which was originally a 'process attainable by an average human,' into a lofty and distant ideal.

1. The Structure of 'Enlightenment and Social Engagement' in Early Buddhism

The Functional Significance of 'Withdrawal from the Secular World' (Creating an Environment)

The teachings on withdrawal or seclusion from the secular world in the oldest early scriptures (such as the Sutta Nipata) are positioned not as enlightenment itself (the destination), but as a condition-setting (means/training wheels) to deepen the observation of impermanence and non-self (wisdom) and to cut off craving.

The Altruistic Practice of the Arhat and 'Compassion Without Attachment'

An Arhat who has deeply observed impermanence and non-self and has extinguished craving reaches a state where engaging with society does not generate new craving or attachment (risk). There, a cognition arises: 'While self and others are distinct beings with different histories (recognition of boundaries), they are also inseparable beings deeply connected to each other through dependent origination (non-duality).'

The representative Arhat figures appearing in early scriptures (Shakyamuni, Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, etc.) all engaged in life-risking missionary work and the cultivation of disciples (altruistic action) through this natural 'compassion without attachment' based on that cognition.

The fact that Buddhism was transmitted at that time can be considered evidence that their active proselytizing activities (i.e., compassion through wisdom) existed.

2. The Formalization of Nikaya Buddhism and the Problem Posed by 'Early Mahayana'

The Transformation of Means into Ends and Institutionalization (The Early Mahayana Perspective)

With the deepening of later Nikaya Buddhism (Abhidharma), a tendency arose for 'withdrawal from the secular world' and 'minute classification and analysis of doctrine,' which were originally means, to become reified and absolutized. It can be understood that the proponents of the early Mahayana movement viewed this state of the Nikaya schools as a 'self-enclosed attitude lacking compassion' (the image of the 'Arhat without compassion').

Conflict and the Transformation of Rhetoric in the Early Prajnaparamita Sutras

References to Arhats in the oldest layer of the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita are presumed to have started from a complementary demand: 'While premised on the wisdom (non-self/emptiness) acquired by the Arhat, one should aim for the 'complete being (Bodhisattva) equipped with both wisdom and compassion' embodied by Shakyamuni.'

However, as the controversy with the Nikaya schools intensified, the logic shifted toward an extreme position that 'those who lack compassion have not realized true emptiness (non-self),' deepening into rhetoric that denied or subordinated not only the inactive Arhats of the time but 'the enlightenment of the Arhat itself.'

3. Text Interpretation Model in the Logical Structure of the Early Prajnaparamita Sutras

Analyzing the casting and conflict structure within the text of the early Prajnaparamita Sutras, it can be read as six layers (an implicit classification model) that reflect the intentions and ideological stance of the compilers.

| 階層 | 対象 | 評価・役割 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 絶対的頂点 | 釈尊 | 悟り＋慈悲（完全なる最終目標） |
| 過去の聖者 | 理想的阿羅漢（須菩提・舎利弗など） | 悟り＋慈悲（釈尊の加持により空を代弁する存在） |
| 理想の完成 | 菩薩（完全体） | 悟り＋慈悲（釈尊と同じ地平を目指す理想像） |
| 途上の修道 | 菩薩（未完成） | 智慧あり＋慈悲（途中で小乗へ退転するリスクを孕む） |
| 成長の期待 | 菩薩（初心者） | 智慧なし＋善行（空の理解は未熟だが慈悲・善行があり、将来に期待される） |
| 批判の対象 | 阿羅漢（同時代の一部派閥） | 無慈悲＋悟り（社会から厭離し慈悲を欠く批判対象） |

4. The Paradox of Mahayana Intellectual Development (From the Prajnaparamita Sutras to the Lotus Sutra)

The Clarification and Transformation of the Concept of Emptiness by the Prajnaparamita Sutras

The Prajnaparamita Sutras sought to break down the dogmas of sectarian Buddhism by thoroughly deconstructing and negating concepts through the assertion that 'all is empty (lacks inherent existence),' aiming to revive the early Buddhist wisdom of impermanence and non-self alongside the compassion of the Bodhisattva path. However, due to its high level of philosophical abstraction, it possessed a nature that was easily detached from secular understanding.

The Reconstruction of Universal Salvation by the Lotus Sutra (Dramatic Narrativization)

In contrast, the early Lotus Sutra did not yet possess a cosmic view of the Buddha, focusing instead on the logical framework of universal salvation through the 'Three Vehicles into One Vehicle'.

However, as its compilation progressed, the universalization of the Bodhisattva path and narrative elements were added, and the philosophy of salvation developed in a more emotional and dramatic direction. Ultimately, in the 'Life Span' chapter, Shakyamuni manifests as an 'eternal Buddha' who had already attained enlightenment in the distant past, and a magnificent scene is depicted in which the 'Bodhisattvas of the Earth' emerge from the ground.

In this way, the Lotus Sutra was reconstructed from the early Buddhist, non-transcendent universal salvation into a mythic, cosmic-scale salvation story, completing a drama of universal salvation that, while having the philosophy of 'emptiness' as its ancestor, pushed emotion and practice to the forefront over logic.

5. Conclusion: The Paradox of Accessibility Accompanying Universalization

The enlightenment in early Buddhism presented by Shakyamuni was originally a life-sized and highly reproducible mental technique and transformation process that a living human being could practice and attain 'here and now'.

However, the Mahayana development that universalized and scaled up the philosophy of the teachings to save more people (the advanced conceptual deconstruction in the 'Prajnaparamita Sutras' and the expansion into a grand salvation drama in the 'Lotus Sutra') can be seen as having, while gaining universality, ironically transformed the 'realistic enlightenment that a life-sized human can achieve' into a lofty ideal that is not easily reached.