What is the Secret to Closing Difficult Negotiations? The Art of Diplomacy Taught by French Diplomat Callières

François de Callières (1645–1717) is known for writing the classic work on diplomacy, "On the Manner of Negotiating with Princes (De la manière de négocier)" (1716). He was a diplomat who served King Louis XIV of France (reigned 1643–1715), who engaged in repeated wars throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.

Because the book was written based on practical experience, it is highly pragmatic, discussing what should be done in diplomacy, the knowledge and qualities necessary to carry out one's duties, how to ingratiate oneself with monarchs and ministers at foreign courts, and how to proceed with negotiations.

Since it has been translated into Japanese, I will introduce the arguments regarding how to proceed with negotiations while relying on that translation.

“Bestowing favors” is the foundation of negotiation

First, in Callières' time, the significance of diplomacy as a tool of national policy was not yet fully understood.

Therefore, Callières' work begins by appealing for the importance of diplomacy, arguing that a sovereign must exhaust all means to persuade the other party through reason before resorting to force to assert their rights (p. 9).

The specific means envisioned here is to "bestow favors" upon the other party; in other words, he states that it is important to engage in negotiations that present the possibility of providing benefits to the other party rather than just asserting one's own interests (Ibid.). For example, Callières states that the alignment of interests is the basis of diplomacy, and argues as follows:

“A philosopher of old said that friendship between people is nothing more than a transaction where each pursues their own interest, but the same can be said even more so for the relationships and treaties formed between sovereigns. There are no relationships or treaties that are not based on mutual interest” (pp. 58-9).

In other words, the basis of diplomatic negotiation is to build and maintain a relationship where each party can gain benefits. To this end, Callières states that there are situations where a country that is militarily superior should make concessions to a weaker country.

Although this teaching contradicts the intuition that the weak should follow the strong, Callières explains that it is often much more in one's own interest to make an ally of the weak and have them provide reinforcements than to make them an enemy (p. 59).

Do not be impatient if the other party does not accept your proposal

What one notices when reading Callières' work is that it is emphasized throughout that diplomacy is a job that requires patience. A diplomat sent from their home country will begin to frequent foreign courts, but they cannot expect to have a deep relationship with them from the start. It takes time to build a relationship of trust and win their confidence.

The basic duties of a diplomat include praising the work and talents of monarchs and ministers on a daily basis and giving gifts at appropriate times. If news favorable to that country's court breaks, one should share in that joy with the relevant parties, and for that reason, one must fully understand that country's interests. Of course, Callières also argues that it is necessary to pay attention to maintaining one's character and politeness as a diplomat.

Building on this groundwork, Callières discusses the importance of carefully listening to what the other party has to say. You must not thoughtlessly speak of what you know or what you desire. You must judge the other party's temperament, intelligence, and work style not only from what they say, but also from their facial expressions and tone of voice, and gradually guide them to accept your proposal.

This is a very laborious method, but Callières preaches that taking the time to gradually bring the other party's thinking closer to one's own is the essence of diplomacy.

“Knowing how to drip, so to speak, into the mind of the negotiator what you want them to be convinced of is one of the greatest secrets of the art of negotiation. There are many people in the world who, no matter how advantageous a project may be for them, will never decide to join if they are shown the full picture and all its possible consequences from the start. However, even such people can be led as we wish if we let them enter little by little, step by step” (p. 104).

Please note that guiding the other party's thinking does not mean making a proposal that is advantageous to them. It is not important whether the content of the proposal is objectively advantageous; what is important is to make the other party subjectively believe that your proposal is advantageous.

The technique of getting the other party to accept your proposal

According to Callières' teachings, while "there are almost no people who want to confess that they are wrong or that they have a misconception," "if someone agrees with you on one point, there are many people who can abandon their own opinion on another point" (p. 106). (The details of this psychology are explained by modern psychologists using cognitive dissonance theory, but for details, please check the past explanatory article 'It is too difficult to admit that you were wrong').

In other words, to get them to accept your proposal while being careful not to hurt their pride, you must be careful about the order in which you convey your opinions and proposals. If you show only the conclusion in one leap, the other party will want to argue against it, and the negotiation will never be settled.

This also suggests that diplomatic negotiations conducted under time pressure often struggle to succeed. Callières argues that one should absolutely avoid a tone that sounds like lecturing monarchs or ministers on reason, and if the other party is not interested, it is a good strategy to quickly change the subject (p. 107).

Humans are inherently fickle, and one must think that if the situation changes, the opportunity for negotiation will come around again. To make full use of the negotiation techniques taught by Callières, persistence and patience are required.

Conclusion

Callières' achievement is often said to be the clarification of the technical aspects of diplomacy. While that is certainly an important accomplishment, I believe that, in addition to that, analyzing the psychological tendencies observed in policymakers who choose foreign policy through the study of diplomatic negotiations was also a significant result.

In recent international political studies, there is a growing movement to incorporate psychological approaches to investigate the situational awareness and decision-making of elites involved in foreign policy. As such new research progresses, it will become increasingly clear that Callières' arguments held significant meaning for understanding international politics.