[Mythology and the Origins of Knowledge] From Mythology to Religion and Philosophy: Where Did Human 'Knowledge' Begin?
When you try to study religion or philosophy, you are suddenly confronted with major systems like Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Greek philosophy, and Indian philosophy. However, even before those, there is 'mythology'.
Mythology is not just old stories. Before humanity possessed the language of science or philosophy, it was the first form of knowledge used to explain 'why the world exists,' 'where humans came from,' 'what death is,' 'what good and evil are,' and 'why kings and social order are necessary.'
In other words, mythology is one of humanity's oldest frameworks for understanding the world, existing as a precursor to religion and philosophy.
Mythology was a narrative for explaining the world
There are many mythological systems in the world. In Japan, there is Japanese mythology recorded in the 'Kojiki' and 'Nihon Shoki,' which tells stories such as the creation of the land by Izanagi and Izanami, Amaterasu Omikami, Susanoo, and the descent of the heavenly grandson. The 'Kojiki' and 'Nihon Shoki' are positioned as the foundational texts of Japan that convey mythology and ancient history.
In Norse mythology, Odin, Thor, Loki, the world tree Yggdrasil, and Ragnarok as the end of the world are famous. Important sources for Norse mythology as it is known today include the 'Poetic Edda' and 'Prose Edda,' which were compiled in medieval Iceland.
In Greek mythology, gods such as Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Athena, and Dionysus appear, and stories are told of the conflicts of the gods, human desires, and the tragedies of heroes. In Mesopotamia, works like the 'Epic of Gilgamesh' turned the inescapable limitations of human life into a narrative. In Egyptian mythology, Osiris, Isis, Horus, and the judgment of the dead were deeply connected to kingship and views of the afterlife.
What these myths have in common is that they explain 'natural phenomena,' 'death,' 'order,' 'power,' and 'good and evil' through stories. Lightning was not just a meteorological phenomenon but the work of a god, and a king was not just a ruler but a bearer of mythical order.
It can be said that mythology was the first wisdom through which humanity tried to give meaning to the world while still being afraid of it.
In India, it progressed from mythology to the Vedas and the Upanishads
The Vedas and the Upanishads are important for understanding Indian thought.
The Vedas are a collection of ancient Indian religious texts, and the word means 'knowledge.' Representatively, there are four: the 'Rigveda,' 'Samaveda,' 'Yajurveda,' and 'Atharvaveda.' The Vedas are a collection of texts containing hymns to the gods, sacrificial formulas, prayers, incantations, and knowledge of rituals, and they became the foundation for later Hinduism and Indian philosophy.
In the early Vedic world, gods such as Indra, Agni, Soma, and Varuna were important. Here, a ritualistic worldview was central, in which humans offered sacrifices to the gods to maintain cosmic order and prayed for fertility, victory, and longevity.
Later, more philosophical questions emerged from within the Vedas. This is the Upanishads. The Upanishads are considered to be ancient Indian philosophical texts that were established through oral tradition between 700 and 300 BCE, and they ask what existence is, what the self is, what happens after death, and what ultimate reality is. What becomes important here are Atman and Brahman.
Atman is understood as the 'self' or 'true self,' and Brahman as the 'fundamental principle of the universe' or 'ultimate reality.' A major idea of the Upanishads is the concept that the self deep within the individual is connected at a profound level to the fundamental principle of the universe.
Here, the center of gravity of knowledge shifts.
From praying to the gods to looking at the self.
From external rituals to internal inquiry.
From mythical stories to philosophical questions.
This shift is a major characteristic of Indian thought.
How did Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Jainism diverge?
Those who valued the Vedas and performed rituals were the priestly class called Brahmins. Brahmanism is, roughly speaking, the ancient Indian religious culture that developed around the authority of the Vedas, rituals, and the priestly class. Later Hinduism inherited this Vedic-Brahmin tradition while incorporating folk beliefs, mythology, philosophy, epics, and the philosophy of devotion, developing into a larger religious culture.
On the other hand, movements began to emerge that distanced themselves from the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmins. This was the Shramana tradition, which led to Buddhism and Jainism. The term 'Shramana' refers to ascetic practitioners who left their household lives to pursue liberation. It is explained that the Shramana movement followed a path separate from Vedic rituals and Brahminical authority, giving rise to Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddhism did not focus on salvation centered around Vedic gods; instead, it taught a path of observing the causes of suffering, detaching from cravings, and attaining enlightenment through practice. Jainism emphasized thorough non-violence, asceticism, and the purification of the soul.
What is important here is that Buddhism did not emerge simply as a 'rebellion against the Vedas.' Buddhism also shares the concerns of the Indian intellectual sphere, such as reincarnation, karma, and liberation. However, its answer was different. It showed a path to overcome suffering through one's own practice and insight, rather than through Vedic authority or rituals.
In other words, it is easy to understand the flow of Indian thought if you view it as follows:
The mythical world of gods.
Rituals and cosmic order through the Vedas.
The philosophy of the self and the universe through the Upanishads.
The development of the Vedic tradition through Brahmanism and Hinduism.
A separate route of liberation thought through Buddhism and Jainism.
Knowing this flow reveals that neither Buddhism nor Hinduism were religions that appeared suddenly, but rather philosophies that emerged from the vast intellectual soil of ancient India.
Zoroastrianism did not 'emerge from the Vedas,' but shares the same ancient roots.
Zoroastrianism is also extremely important for understanding the history of human religion. However, some caution is needed here. Zoroastrianism is not a religion that was born directly from the Indian Vedas.
More accurately, there are similarities between the ancient Indian Vedic culture and ancient Iranian Zoroastrianism that date back to an even older common Indo-Iranian culture. For example, common elements are pointed out, such as the Vedic Mitra and the Iranian Mithra, and the emphasis on Agni in the Vedas and fire in Iran. In ancient Iranian religion, Ahura Mazda occupied an important position as the creator god who brought order.
The scripture of Zoroastrianism is the Avesta. The Avesta is a collection of ancient Iranian religious texts, and what is passed down today is considered to be only a portion of it.
A characteristic of Zoroastrianism is its strong emphasis on the conflict between good and evil, truth and falsehood, and order and chaos. Ahura Mazda is spoken of as a good god, and humans are required to stand on the side of truth and order through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.
This philosophy is often discussed in relation to later Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This is because there are overlapping themes such as angels, demons, the Last Judgment, the Messiah, the end of the world, and the struggle between good and evil. However, it is dangerous to simply conclude that 'Zoroastrianism is the source of everything' regarding these influences. What is important is that from the ancient Orient to the Iranian world, the grand themes of good and evil, the end of the world, salvation, and ethical choice were deepening.
Learning mythology provides a map for religion and philosophy.
Mythology, religion, and philosophy may seem like separate things. However, in reality, they are continuous.
Mythology explains the world through stories.
Religion turns those stories into systems of ritual, community, and salvation.
Philosophy questions those premises and thinks in more abstract terms.
Knowing Japanese mythology gives a glimpse into the background of shrines, the imperial system, and festivals. Knowing Norse mythology reveals the views on life, death, and heroism in Northern Europe. Knowing Greek mythology reveals motifs in Western literature and art. Knowing the Indian Vedas and Upanishads reveals the premises of Buddhism and Hinduism. Knowing Zoroastrianism reveals the ancient layers of dualism and eschatology.
The point of learning mythology as a liberal art is not simply to memorize the names of gods.
It is to understand how humanity has attempted to comprehend the absurdity of the world, the fear of death, the power of nature, social order, and the problem of good and evil.
It is difficult to try to learn religion and philosophy deeply all at once. However, if you enter through the mythology that precedes them, the flow of human knowledge becomes easier to see.
The beginning of knowledge was not abstract concepts, but stories.
Humans first understood the world as a story.
That story became ritual, then religion, and eventually philosophy.
Studying mythology is to touch upon the origins of human thought.