Pahlavi and Huzvarish (9.7 thousand characters)

Pahlavi and Huzvarish

Pahlavi, or Middle Persian, is a language that was used from around the 2nd century BC to the 7th century AD, particularly as the official language of the Sasanian Empire (224–651 AD). This language is characterized by its evolutionary process, its role as a medium for recording culture, and a unique writing system known as Huzvarish.

Part 1: The Structure of Huzvarish — Writing in Aramaic, Reading in Persian

The most prominent feature of Pahlavi is the writing system called Huzvarish. This is a highly unique system in which words from the Semitic Aramaic language are written using their own characters, but are read as the corresponding Persian words from the Indo-European language family when pronounced. Unlike simple loanwords, this was a highly conventionalized writing system that used foreign words as a kind of ideographic 'symbol'.

Comparison with Kun-yomi of Kanji in Japanese

This phenomenon is deeply similar to the structure of 'Kun-yomi' in Japanese, where Chinese characters (Kanji) are borrowed and read using native Japanese words. A deep consideration of this similarity is extremely effective for understanding the essence of Huzvarish.

In Japanese, the Kanji '水' corresponds to the Chinese pronunciation 'shuǐ', but when Japanese people see this character, they read it as their native word 'mizu'. At this time, the character '水' does not directly indicate the phonetic value /mizu/, but functions as a symbol pointing to the [concept] of 'clean liquid'. However, at the same time, Japanese people are also aware of the 'On-yomi' reading 'sui', which is derived from the Chinese pronunciation. This dual system allows educated Japanese people to access both the [meaning] of their native word 'mizu' and the [phonology] derived from a foreign language, 'sui', simultaneously through a single character. Through this sophisticated cognitive process, where the vocabularies of two semantically equivalent language systems (Wago and Kango) coexist and connect in the reader's consciousness via the medium of characters, a multi-layered understanding is formed where '水' is both 'mizu' and 'sui' at the same time.

This Japanese example provides important insights into how ancient Persian scribes perceived Huzvarish. It is highly likely that when they saw the Aramaic spelling LḤM, they not only read it as the Persian word 'nān' (equivalent to Kun-yomi), but were also aware of the phonological existence of the Aramaic 'laḥmā' (equivalent to On-yomi) from which the characters were derived, intuitively linking the two as equivalents. In this way, Huzvarish was not merely a code, but is thought to have functioned as an intellectual tool for the elite, who were well-versed in both linguistic worlds, to move freely between them.

Part 2: The Nature of Pahlavi

2.1 Position in Linguistic Evolution

Pahlavi is the direct ancestor of Modern Persian and occupies an important transitional period in the history of the Persian language.

• Simplification from Old Persian: Old Persian, as seen in Achaemenid inscriptions, was an inflected language with complex noun case declensions and grammatical gender, similar to Sanskrit. By the Pahlavi stage, these case declensions had almost disappeared, and the language shifted to a more analytical one that indicated grammatical relationships through word order and prepositions. This change formed the basis for the grammatical structure of later Modern Persian.

• Foundation for the Transition to New Persian: Pahlavi represents the stage just before Persian completed its internal grammatical evolution and underwent large-scale lexical influence from Arabic following the Islamization of the 7th century. It is a language that reached a historical turning point after organizing the complex system of the ancient language and establishing the skeleton of the Persian language that would be inherited by later eras.

2.2 Characteristics of the Writing System

The Pahlavi script used to write Pahlavi has complex characteristics of its own.

• Derivation from the Aramaic script: It was derived from the Aramaic script, a Semitic script that was the international lingua franca of the ancient Middle East. Therefore, it has the characteristics of an 'abjad', which is written from right to left and generally does not represent vowels.

• Cursive development and character merging: The Pahlavi script, especially the 'book script' used in manuscripts, underwent cursive development. As a result, a phenomenon occurred where multiple characters that originally represented different phonetic values were connected and merged, becoming morphologically identical. For example, the sounds /n/, /r/, and /w/ can sometimes be written with a single symbol that is indistinguishable depending on the context, and deciphering them requires specialized knowledge.

• Retention of historical spelling: In addition, the spelling of characters did not follow the phonological changes of the spoken language, but continued to retain 'historical spellings' that reflected the pronunciations of older eras. This conservatism is another factor that makes deciphering the Pahlavi script difficult.

2.3 Role as a Cultural Medium

Pahlavi was not the language of a single culture, but played a role as a medium for recording diverse religions and ideologies.

• Liturgical and Academic Language of Zoroastrianism: The Avesta, the fundamental scripture of the state religion Zoroastrianism, was written in the older Avestan language, but the Zand, its translations and commentaries, were all written in Pahlavi. As a result, Pahlavi became an essential academic language for conveying theology and philosophy.

• Use in Other Religions: Its use was not limited to the state religion. Christians (mainly Nestorians) living within the Sasanian Empire translated parts of the Bible from Syriac into Pahlavi. Furthermore, Manichaeism, which fused elements of Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism, also wrote many documents in Pahlavi for missionary purposes. Additionally, it became a medium for secular literature, such as the translation of the Indian fable collection Panchatantra. These facts indicate that Persia at the time was a hub where diverse cultures and ideologies coexisted and interacted.

Part 3: Relationship with Other Languages

The characteristics of Pahlavi are understood through its relationship with surrounding major languages. The writing direction of the scripts of the languages mentioned in this chapter reflects their lineage and is broadly classified as follows.

Supplement: Writing Direction of Each Language (in order of emergence)

• Writing systems written from right to left

  • Hebrew script: A Northwest Semitic script like the Aramaic script, derived from the Phoenician script around the 10th century BC.

  • Aramaic script: Established around the same time as the Hebrew script, it later became the international lingua franca of the Ancient Near East. The direct ancestor of the Pahlavi script.

  • Pahlavi script: Derived from the Aramaic script around the 2nd century BC, this is the main subject of this paper.

  • Syriac script: Developed from the Aramaic script around the 1st century AD as a literary language for Christians.

  • Arabic script: Developed around the 4th century AD from the Nabataean script of the Aramaic family, it later replaced the Pahlavi script.

• Writing systems written from left to right

  • Cuneiform (Old Persian): Created around the 6th century BC by simplifying existing cuneiform scripts. It was used to write Old Persian, the distant ancestor of Pahlavi.

  • Devanagari, etc. (Sanskrit): Descended from the Brahmi script of around the 3rd century BC. These are Brahmi-derived scripts used for writing Sanskrit.

  • Avestan script: Created during the Sasanian Empire between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD, based on scripts like Pahlavi, to accurately record the sounds of the Avestan language.

This difference in writing direction symbolizes the hybrid nature of Pahlavi, which recorded the linguistic content of Indo-European languages while inheriting a Semitic writing culture.

3.1 Aramaic and Syriac

• Symbiosis with Aramaic: Aramaic is a Semitic language widely used in the ancient Near Eastern world. It is a sister language to Hebrew, which was also used in parts of the Old Testament, both belonging to the Northwest Semitic branch. From the first millennium BC through the Achaemenid Persian period, it established its status as an international lingua franca. Its script, like the Hebrew and Arabic scripts, is written from right to left. For Pahlavi, Aramaic was not merely the origin of its script, but through Huzvarish, it was a presence deeply involved in the core of its linguistic structure. It formed a unique relationship in linguistic history where two different language families coexisted within a single writing system while maintaining their respective structures.

• Points of contact with Syriac: Syriac is a language that developed from the Edessan dialect, a dialect of Aramaic. Especially from the 3rd century onwards, it was widely used as an important literary and liturgical language among Christians in West Asia. The Syriac script, which evolved from the Aramaic script, is also written from right to left. Because Pahlavi and Syriac both used writing systems derived from the Aramaic script, there was a cultural affinity between them. This common foundation became one of the factors that enabled the translation of literature between different religious communities.

3.2 Sanskrit and Avestan

• Systematic relationship with Sanskrit: The Iranian language group to which Pahlavi belongs and the Indo-Aryan language group to which Sanskrit belongs are related language groups that branched off from a common Proto-Indo-Iranian language. Therefore, even without direct borrowing, many commonalities can be seen in basic vocabulary and grammatical structures.

  • Examples of cognates: devá (Sanskrit) and dēv (Pahlavi) for god, ásura (Sanskrit) and ahur (Old Iranian) for lord, yajñá (Sanskrit) and yazdan (Pahlavi) for sacrifice, etc.

• Religious relationship with Avestan: Avestan is an older ancient Iranian language used to record the Avesta, the fundamental scripture of Zoroastrianism. During the Sasanian period, Avestan was not a daily language, but it retained authority as a sacred liturgical language. Pahlavi functioned as an academic and theological language (Zand) for translating and providing commentary on these Avestan texts.

3.3 Arabic

The Islamization of the 7th century brought a decisive change to the history of the Pahlavi language.

• Transition of Administrative and Religious Languages: Under the new ruling regime, the languages of administration and religion shifted to Arabic and its script, which belong to the same Semitic family. In Islam, the Quran is considered the "very word of God" revealed in Arabic, and its sanctity is seen as inseparable from the language itself. Therefore, translation into other languages is positioned merely as "interpretation" or "conveyance of meaning," and the use of translated versions in prayer or liturgy is, in principle, not permitted. This absolute religious authority of the Arabic language relatively lowered the status of Pahlavi, the former religious language, and became a factor that accelerated its decline.

• Decline through Natural Selection: The complex Pahlavi script, including Huzvarish, lost its public usage and gradually fell out of use. This was not due to legal prohibition, but rather the result of natural selection caused by the emergence of a more efficient new writing system (the "New Persian" that describes the colloquial-based Persian language using the Arabic script).

• Repetition of Historical Relationships: Persian culture was significantly influenced in terms of script and vocabulary by the Semitic Aramaic language during the Sasanian period, and similarly by the Semitic Arabic language after Islamization. It can be seen that Semitic languages from different eras were involved in the written culture of the Persian language.

Part 4: List of Extant Sacred Scriptures and Important Documents Written in Pahlavi

Pahlavi was an important medium for recording the intellect and faith of the Sasanian Empire. The fact that Zoroastrian, Christian, and Manichaean texts were written in this language demonstrates the cultural diversity of the Iranian plateau at the time. The following are the major sacred scriptures and documents written in Pahlavi that still exist today.

4.1 Zoroastrian Literature

Zoroastrianism is an ancient Iranian religion based on the teachings of the prophet Zarathustra (Greek name: Zoroaster). Its doctrine is characterized by a dualism of good and evil, centered on the conflict between Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd in Pahlavi), the god of goodness and thought, and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the spirit of evil and falsehood. Believers are required to choose good through their free will and contribute to the final victory of good at the end of the world. The literature of Zoroastrianism, which was the state religion of the Sasanian Empire, forms the most extensive and important collection of works written in Pahlavi. These are not only religious books but also first-class historical sources regarding the theology, cosmology, jurisprudence, historical views, and ethics of that time.

• Zand-Avesta: Translation and Commentary of Sacred Scriptures

  • Overview: A collective term for a group of documents in which a Pahlavi translation (Zand) and detailed commentary were added to the text of the Avesta, the fundamental scripture of Zoroastrianism. The Avesta was written in the old Avestan language, and since it had become a difficult language during the Sasanian period, priests provided commentaries in the contemporary official language.

  • Historical Significance: The Zand is indispensable for inferring the contents of the lost Avestan text, and at the same time, it is a record showing the development process of theology during the Sasanian period. It is the group of documents where Huzvarish was used most systematically, and it forms the basis of Pahlavi studies.

• Dēnkard: Acts of Religion

  • Overview: An encyclopedic work on Zoroastrianism, meaning "Acts of Religion." It consists of nine volumes and covers a wide range of knowledge, including theology, rituals, cosmology, ethics, jurisprudence, history, and refutations of other religions. It was compiled between the 9th and 10th centuries after Islamization.

  • Historical Significance: It contains many summaries and citations of documents that existed during the Sasanian period, and is often described as a "lost library." It is a monumental work that shows the culmination of the intellectual tradition of Zoroastrianism.

• Bundahishn: Primal Creation

  • Overview: Meaning "Primal Creation," this is a book that systematically describes Zoroastrian creation myths and cosmology. It depicts cosmic history from the creation of the world by the good god Ohrmazd to the hostility of the evil god Ahriman, and finally to the end of the world and the Last Judgment.

  • Historical Significance: It is an important document in the study of comparative mythology and the history of ancient Iranian thought. It serves as a key to understanding the foundations of the Zoroastrian worldview.

• Čīdag andarz ī pōryōtkēšān: Selected Teachings of the Ancient Sages

  • Overview: Meaning "Selected Teachings of the First Believers," this is a collection of aphorisms summarizing Zoroastrian ethics and life lessons. It concisely records the importance of good deeds, honesty, and wisdom in daily life.

  • Historical Significance: In addition to religious doctrine, it is a valuable resource for understanding the ethics, values, and civic morality of the people during the Sasanian period.

• Mādiyān ī Hazār Dādestān: The Book of a Thousand Judgments

  • Overview: A collection of legal precedents concerning civil and criminal law during the Sasanian period. Legal issues related to social life, such as marriage, inheritance, contracts, property, and crime, are recorded along with specific cases.

  • Historical Significance: It is an important historical source for legal history that conveys the reality of society at the time, and is an indispensable document for studying the legal system and social structure of the Sasanian Empire.

4.2 Christian Literature

• Pahlavi Psalter

  • Overview: A manuscript containing a portion of the Book of Psalms from the Old Testament, translated from Syriac into Pahlavi. Discovered near Turpan in China, it is estimated to have been created around the 6th to 7th centuries. It is one of the oldest extant Pahlavi literary works.

  • Historical Significance: This document is empirical evidence showing that Pahlavi was used not only by Zoroastrians but also by Christian communities within the territory. It suggests that different religious groups interacted through a common linguistic culture.

4.3 Manichaean Literature

Manichaeism is a religion founded in the 3rd century by the prophet Mani in Babylonia, within the Sasanian Empire. Its doctrine is characterized by a notable syncretism, based on the Zoroastrian dualism of good and evil, while incorporating Christian concepts of salvation and Buddhist concepts of reincarnation. Based on a thorough dualism of light and darkness, good and evil, and spirit and body, its goal was to liberate the particles of light (souls) trapped in the body through an ascetic life and return them to the world of light.

• Manichaean literature unearthed in Central Asia (Turpan)

  • Overview: The teachings of Manichaeism spread eastward along the Silk Road, and numerous document fragments written in Middle Persian (Pahlavi) have been discovered in oasis cities such as Turpan.

  • Examples of content: The 'Shabuhragan' in which the prophet Mani recorded his doctrines, hymns and prayers used in the order's rituals, and stories incorporating Buddhist tales that were influential in Central Asia.

  • Historical significance: These documents demonstrate that Pahlavi functioned as an international religious language along the Silk Road, extending beyond the Iranian plateau. Furthermore, they are often written in a style closer to the vernacular than Zoroastrian texts, making them valuable materials for understanding the spoken language of the time.

4.4 Secular Literature and Scientific Literature

• Kalīlag ud Dimnag

  • Overview: A translation of the ancient Indian fable collection 'Panchatantra' from Sanskrit into Pahlavi. Featuring two jackals as protagonists, it teaches political lessons and worldly wisdom through the dialogues of animals. Although the original Pahlavi version does not survive, its content spread throughout the world via Arabic translations.

  • Historical significance: This is evidence that the Sasanian Empire actively accepted and translated India's intellectual heritage, and it tells the story of how Persia functioned as a crossroads for East-West cultural exchange.

• Draxt ī Āsōrīg: The Assyrian Tree

  • Overview: A fable poem in which a palm tree and a goat compete for superiority. It is one of the few Pahlavi literary works with secular content.

  • Historical Significance: As a literary work with little religious color, it conveys a glimpse of the poetic sensibilities and expressions of the people of that time.

Conclusion

Pahlavi is a language that connects the chain of evolution of the Persian language from ancient times to the present, and it is a historical example where two different linguistic worlds, the Indo-European and the Semitic, coexisted through the writing system known as Huzvarish.

From Zoroastrian cosmology to Christian prayers, Manichaean hymns, and Indian fables, the diverse body of extant literature shows that ancient Persia was a civilization that accepted different cultures and religions and formed its own intellectual world. The decipherment of the Pahlavi script and Huzvarish is important not only for studying ancient languages but also for understanding the intellectual heritage of a civilization situated at the crossroads of history.

Appendix: 20 Examples of Pahlavi and Huzvarish

Below are 20 examples of Huzvarish and Persian words found in Pahlavi literature. The notation is based on Latin transliteration.

[From Zoroastrian literature]

1. King of Kings

   • Aramaic notation: MLK'n MLK'

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: shāhān shāh

   • Meaning: King of kings.

   • Explanation: The official title of Sasanian monarchs. It combines the Aramaic word for "king" (MLK) with the plural suffix ('n) to express the Persian title.

2. Supreme God

   • Persian spelling: 'whrmzd

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: Ohrmazd

   • Meaning: Ohrmazd (Ahura Mazda).

   • Explanation: An example of a Persian proper noun written not in Huzvarish. Sacred names were written in their own specific words.

3. Father

   • Aramaic spelling: 'BY

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: pidar

   • Meaning: Father.

   • Explanation: The word meaning "my father" in Aramaic was used as a symbol for the general Persian word for "father".

4. Created

   • Aramaic script: BR'

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: dād

   • Meaning: Created.

   • Explanation: The Aramaic verb brā (to create) functioned as a symbol for reading the past tense of the Persian verb dādan (to give, to create).

5. Priest

   • Persian-Aramaic compound notation: mowmard

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: mōmard

   • Meaning: A man of the Magi, i.e., a Zoroastrian priest.

   • Explanation: A compound word combining the Persian mōg (Magi) and the Huzvarish mard (< GBR, man).

6. He says

   • Aramaic script: YMLLWNt

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: gōwēd

   • Meaning: He says.

   • Explanation: An example where an Aramaic verb conjugation corresponds to a specific Persian conjugation (present tense, third-person singular).

7. I

   • Aramaic script: ANH

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: az

   • Meaning: I (first-person singular pronoun).

   • Explanation: One of the most basic pronouns was also written in Huzvarish.

8. House

   • Aramaic notation: BYT

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: xānag or kadag

   • Meaning: House.

   • Explanation: The Aramaic word baytā (house) was used as a symbol to read the Persian synonym.

9. Hand

   • Aramaic script: YDE

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: dast

   • Meaning: Hand.

   • Explanation: An example where Huzvarish was applied even to basic vocabulary representing body parts.

10. Day

    • Aramaic script: YWM

    • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: rōz

    • Meaning: Day.

    • Explanation: A word representing a fundamental concept regarding time. Derived from the Aramaic yōmā.

11. Name

    • Aramaic script: ŠM

    • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: nām

    • Meaning: Name.

    • Explanation: It has been pointed out that the Aramaic šēm and the Persian nām may be cognates tracing back to an even older ancestral language.

12. Law, judgment

    • Aramaic script: DYN

    • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: dād

    • Meaning: Law, judgment, religion.

    • Explanation: A legal and religious term that appears frequently in the legal history document 'Mādayān ī Hazār Dādestān'.

[From the Christian text 'Pahlavi Psalter']

1. Lord

   • Hebrew spelling: YHWH

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: Adōnay or Xwadāy

   • Meaning: Lord.

   • Explanation: The Hebrew Tetragrammaton was borrowed directly and read as 'Adonai (my Lord)' following Jewish custom.

2. The Lord is blessed

   • Aramaic-Hebrew composite notation: BRYK YHWH

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: afrīd Adōnay

   • Meaning: The Lord is blessed.

   • Explanation: The Syriac (Aramaic dialect) word brīk (blessed) was used as Huzvarish and read as the Persian word afrīd (blessed).

3. God

   • Aramaic script: ALHA

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: yazd

   • Meaning: God.

   • Explanation: An example where the Syriac Alāhā (God) is read as yazd, the common Persian word for "God," in the Pahlavi Psalter.

[From Manichaean literature]

1. Gods

   • Persian-Aramaic compound notation: YZDT

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: yazdān

   • Meaning: Gods, those worthy of worship.

   • Explanation: A Huzvarish form where the Aramaic-style plural suffix -T is added to the Persian stem yazd.

2. Soul

   • Aramaic script: NPŠH

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: gyān

   • Meaning: Soul, self.

   • Explanation: The Aramaic nafšā (soul) functioned as a logogram to represent the native Persian gyān (soul, life).

3. Book

   • Aramaic script: NBY

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: nibēg

   • Meaning: Book.

   • Explanation: Manichaeism is also called the "religion of the book" and placed great importance on scriptures. This term appears frequently in Manichaean literature.

4. Demon

   • Persian spelling: 'hrmyn

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: Ahremen

   • Meaning: Ahriman (evil deity).

   • Explanation: A term referring to the Zoroastrian evil deity Ahriman. It was also an important figure in the dualistic worldview of Manichaeism. An example of a spelling that is not Huzvarish.

5. Light

   • Persian notation: rōšn

   • Pronunciation in Pahlavi: rōšn

   • Meaning: Light.

   • Explanation: A word symbolizing the dualism of light and darkness, which is central to Manichaean doctrine. It was written directly in Persian rather than in Huzvarish.

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