No. 33: The Theory of Original Goodness—Reading Mencius

1. Introduction: Are humans good or evil?

Are humans good by nature? Or are they beings that drift toward evil if left to their own devices?

This question is one of the major themes of Chinese philosophy. Confucius taught "Ren" (benevolence) and spoke of the path for humans to live as humans. However, Confucius himself did not explicitly state as a clear system that "human nature is good." It was Mencius who discussed this issue more clearly.

Mencius was a thinker during the Warring States period. In an era when nations were at war, rulers sought to enrich their countries and strengthen their armies, and human life was often treated lightly, Mencius dared to assert the following:

In the human heart, there is a heart that cannot overlook the suffering of others.
That heart is the starting point of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom.
Therefore, human nature is inclined toward goodness.

This is the so-called "Theory of Original Goodness" (Xing Shan Shuo).

However, the "original goodness" that Mencius speaks of does not mean that "people are perfectly good without doing anything." There are sprouts of goodness within people. But those sprouts must be nurtured. Like a fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to gush, they are small at first. Expanding and filling them is what learning and self-cultivation are all about.

This time, we will read two passages from "Mencius" that are important for thinking about the Theory of Original Goodness. The first is the chapter on the "heart of compassion," and the second is the chapter on the metaphor that "water flows downward."

2. Text (1): Everyone has a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others

First, we will read a famous passage from the first part of the "Gongsun Chou" chapter of "Mencius." Here, Mencius teaches that in the human heart, there is a "heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others" (bu ren ren zhi xin).

Original Text

Mencius said, everyone has a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others.
The ancient kings had a heart that could not bear to see the suffering of others, and thus they had a government that could not bear to see the suffering of others.
By using a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others to carry out a government that cannot bear to see the suffering of others, governing the world is as easy as moving something in the palm of one's hand.

The reason I say that everyone has a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others is that if someone were to suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, everyone would have a heart of alarm and compassion.
This is not because they want to curry favor with the child's parents, nor because they want to seek praise from their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the sound of the child's crying.

Judging from this, without a heart of compassion, one is not human.
Without a heart of shame and dislike, one is not human.
Without a heart of deference and compliance, one is not human.
Without a heart of right and wrong, one is not human.

The heart of compassion is the sprout of benevolence.
The heart of shame and dislike is the sprout of righteousness.
The heart of deference and compliance is the sprout of propriety.
The heart of right and wrong is the sprout of wisdom.

Humans having these four sprouts is like them having four limbs.
To have these four sprouts and yet claim to be incapable is to injure oneself.
To say that one's ruler is incapable is to injure one's ruler.

Since everyone has these four sprouts within them, they should know how to expand and fill them all.
It is like a fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to gush.
If one can fill them, it is enough to protect the four seas.
If one cannot fill them, it is not enough to serve one's parents.

Classical Chinese Text

Mencius said,
All people have a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others.
The ancient kings had a heart that could not bear to see the suffering of others, and therefore they had a government that could not bear to see the suffering of others.
If one governs the world with a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others, ruling the world is as easy as turning something on the palm of one's hand.

The reason for saying that all people have a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others is this: if someone were to suddenly see a young child about to fall into a well, they would all feel a sense of alarm and compassion.
This is not because they want to curry favor with the child's parents.
It is not because they want to seek praise from their neighbors and friends.
It is not because they dislike the bad reputation of having ignored the child.

Looking at it from this perspective, one who lacks a heart of compassion is not human.
One who lacks a heart of shame and dislike is not human.
One who lacks a heart of modesty and yielding is not human.
One who lacks a heart of right and wrong is not human.

The heart of compassion is the beginning of benevolence (ren).
The heart of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness (yi).
The heart of modesty and yielding is the beginning of propriety (li).
The heart of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom (zhi).

That people have these four beginnings is like them having four limbs.
Those who have these four beginnings and yet say they are incapable are harming themselves.
Those who say their ruler is incapable are harming their ruler.

In general, those who know that these four beginnings are within them will know how to expand and fulfill them.
It is like a fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to gush forth.
If one can fully expand and fulfill them, it is enough to bring peace to the whole world.
If one does not expand and fulfill them, it is not even enough to serve one's parents.

Japanese Translation

Mencius said:

Everyone has a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others.
The great kings of the past had a heart that could not bear to see the suffering of others. That is why they were able to carry out a government that did not ignore the suffering of the people.
If one carries out such a government with such a heart, governing the world is as easy as moving something on the palm of one's hand.

The reason for saying that everyone has a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others is as follows.
If a person were to suddenly see a young child about to fall into a well, everyone would feel startled, pained, and have a desire to help.
This is not because they want to become close to the child's parents.
It is not because they want to gain praise from the people in their village or their friends.
Nor is it because they dislike the bad reputation of having abandoned the child.

Considering this, one who lacks a heart that feels pain for others is not human.
One who lacks a heart that feels shame for one's own evil and hatred for the evil of others is not human.
One who lacks a heart of yielding is not human.
One who lacks a heart that judges right and wrong is not human.

The heart that feels pain for others is the sprout of benevolence.
The heart that feels shame and hatred is the sprout of righteousness.
The heart of yielding is the sprout of propriety.
The heart that judges right and wrong is the sprout of wisdom.

That people have these four sprouts is just like people having four limbs.
Those who have these four sprouts and yet say they cannot do it are those who harm themselves.
Those who say their ruler cannot do it are those who harm their ruler.

In general, those who know that these four sprouts are within them will know to expand and fulfill them.
It is like a fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to gush forth.
If one can sufficiently expand and fulfill them, one can even bring peace to the world.
If one does not expand and fulfill them, one cannot even sufficiently serve one's parents.

3 Explanation of Terms and Grammar

Ren jie you bu ren ren zhi xin

"Ren jie you" is read as "People all have," and it takes the form of "Everyone has..."

"Bu ren ren zhi xin," if translated literally, is "a heart that cannot bear others."
Here, "ren" means "to endure" or "to tolerate," but in this context, it means "to calmly overlook the suffering of others." Therefore, "bu ren ren zhi xin" is naturally translated as "a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others."

"Zhi" is a particle that creates a noun modifier, so "bu ren ren zhi xin" becomes "a heart that cannot bear others."

Si you bu ren ren zhi zheng yi

"Si" is read as "here" or "thus," and it indicates a result that naturally follows from the preceding content.

The ancient kings had "a heart that could not bear others."
That is precisely why they had "a government that could not bear others."

In other words, for Mencius, politics is not just a matter of systems and laws. At the root of politics, there must be a heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of the people.

Zhi tian xia ke yun zhi zhang shang

"Ke" expresses possibility and is read as "can."
"Zhi tian xia ke yun zhi zhang shang," when read with the word order filled in, becomes:

Governing the world is like moving it on the palm of one's hand.

This is how it reads.

It is best to think of "zhi" here as referring to the entire concept of "governing the world."
"Zhang shang" means "on the palm of the hand." It is a metaphor meaning that governing the world is as easy as moving an object on the palm of one's hand.

Of course, this does not mean that politics is truly easy. Mencius is saying that if a heart that cares for the people is at the center of politics, then politics will be stable from its very foundation.

Suo yi wei ren jie you bu ren ren zhi xin zhe

"Suo yi" is a very common term in classical Chinese.
It is read as "yuen" and translated as "the reason for..." or "the cause of..."

Here, it means:

The reason why we say that everyone has a heart that cannot bear others is...

In other words,

The reason why it is said that everyone has a heart that cannot overlook the suffering of others is

which means.

"Zhe" here nominalizes the entire sentence and functions to connect it to the following phrase, "the reason is."

Jin ren zha jian ru zi jiang ru yu jing

"Jin" sets the scene hypothetically as "now, if." "Zha" is read as "suddenly" or "all of a sudden." Here, it means "unexpectedly."

"Ru zi" refers to a young child. "Jiang ru yu jing" is read as "is about to fall into a well."

"Jiang" is a re-read character.
It is read once as "masani" (about to), and after proceeding downward, it is read back as "ntosu" (intends to).

Jiang ru yu jing
= is about to fall into a well
= is just about to fall into a well

"Yu" indicates a location and is read as "in the well."

Jie you chu ti ce yin zhi xin

"Chuti" means to be startled and afraid. "Ceyin" means to feel pain for someone or to pity them.

The moment one sees a young child about to fall into a well, one does not first calculate.

Will my reputation improve if I save them?
Can I become close with this child's parents?
Will I be spoken ill of if I abandon them?

Before thinking such things, one is startled and feels a pain in the chest. That natural movement of the heart is what Mencius emphasized.

Fei suo yi nei jiao yu ru zi zhi fu mu ye

"Fei suo yi... ye" is a structure meaning "it is not for the purpose of..."

"Neijiao" is read as "naiko," meaning to associate internally, that is, to associate closely. "Yu ru zi zhi fu mu" is read as "with the child's parents."

In other words, the desire to save the child is not for the purpose of trying to become close with the child's parents.

Here, Mencius demonstrates that a person's good heart does not arise from cost-benefit calculations.

Fei suo yi yao yu yu xiang dang peng you ye

'Yao' is read as 'motomu' and means to seek.
'Yu' is honor or reputation.
'Xiang dang peng you' refers to people in the village and friends.

It is read as 'It is not for the purpose of seeking praise from villagers and friends'.

The desire to help is not for the sake of being praised by society.
Mencius seeks the basis of goodness not in external evaluation, but within the heart.

Fei wu qi sheng er ran ye

'Wu' is read here as 'nikumu' (to hate).
'Qi sheng' means 'that reputation' or 'that rumor'.

'Ran' is read as 'shikasuru' and here means 'to become so'.

In other words, the desire to help a child is not because one dislikes the bad reputation of having abandoned them.

Mencius layers three negations.

It is not to become close to the parents.
It is not to gain honor.
It is not to avoid a bad reputation.

By negating these three things, he argues that a good heart arises naturally before any considerations of profit or loss.

4. The Four Beginnings — The Sprouts of Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi

The central term in this chapter is the 'Four Beginnings'.

The word 'beginning' (duan) means the start of something, a clue, or a sprout.
Mencius says that there are four sprouts in the human heart.

| Heart 　　　　| Virtue 　　　|
　　　　　　　　　　　　|
| Heart of Compassion | Beginning of Ren | The heart that feels pain at the suffering of others |
| Heart of Shame and Dislike | Beginning of Yi | The heart that is ashamed of evil and hates injustice |
| Heart of Deference and Compliance | Beginning of Li | The heart of yielding and humility |
| Heart of Right and Wrong | Beginning of Zhi | The heart that judges good and evil, right and wrong |

What is important here is that Mencius is not saying that 'people are already perfected benevolent individuals'.

People have:
A sprout of Ren.
A sprout of Yi.
A sprout of Li.
A sprout of Zhi.

However, a sprout will not become a great tree if it remains just a sprout. If you do not nurture it, it will wither. That is why Mencius says, 'kuo er chong zhi'. That is, 'expand and fill it'.

5 Just as a fire begins to burn, or a spring begins to flow

The character '若' is read as 'gotoshi' (like/as) and expresses a metaphor.
'火之始然' is read as 'hi no hajimete moyu' (fire begins to burn).

Here, '然' has the same meaning as '燃', which means to burn.

'泉之始達' is read as 'izumi no hajimete tassu' (spring begins to reach/flow).
This refers to a spring first gushing out onto the ground and beginning to flow.

For Mencius, a person's good heart is not something that is complete from the beginning like a large flame or a great river. At first, it is a small fire or a spring that has just gushed forth.

However, a small fire becomes a large flame if it spreads.
A small spring becomes a large river if it finds a path to flow.

In the same way, the four beginnings within a person can be grown significantly through self-cultivation.

6 Text (2) Human nature is like water flowing downward

Next, we will read a passage from the first chapter of 'Gaozi' in 'Mencius'. Here, through a discussion with a thinker named Gaozi, Mencius's theory of original goodness becomes even clearer.

Gaozi says that human nature is like the flow of water. Water can be made to flow east, and it can be made to flow west. Therefore, his idea is that human nature is not fixed as either good or evil.

Mencius refutes this.

Water certainly has no distinction between east and west. But can one say it has no distinction between up and down? Water naturally flows downward. In the same way, human nature naturally moves toward goodness.

Original Text

Gaozi said, 'Human nature is like turbulent water.'
'If you divert it to the east, it flows east; if you divert it to the west, it flows west.'
'The fact that human nature has no distinction between good and not-good is like water having no distinction between east and west.'

Mencius said, 'Water indeed has no distinction between east and west.'
'But does it have no distinction between up and down?'
'The goodness of human nature is like water flowing downward.'
'There is no person who is not good, and there is no water that does not flow downward.'

'Now, if you strike water and make it leap, you can make it go over your forehead.'
'If you agitate it and force it, you can make it stay on a mountain.'
'But is this the nature of water?'
'It is the force of circumstances that makes it so.'
'That a person can be made to do evil is also like this in its nature.'

Classical Chinese Text

Gaozi said,
Human nature is like swirling water.
If you open a channel to the east, it flows east; if you open a channel to the west, it flows west.
The fact that human nature does not distinguish between good and not-good is like water not distinguishing between east and west.

Mencius said,
It is true that water does not distinguish between east and west,
but can you say it does not distinguish between up and down?
The goodness of human nature is like water flowing downward.
There is no human who is not good, just as there is no water that does not flow downward.

Now, if you strike water and make it leap, you can make it go over your forehead.
If you force it to flow, you can make it go up a mountain.
But is that the nature of water?
It is the force of circumstances that makes it so.
That a human can be made to do evil is, in terms of their nature, just like this.

Japanese Translation

Gaozi said:

Human nature is just like swirling water.
If you open a water channel to the east, it flows east; if you open a water channel to the west, it flows west.
The fact that human nature has no distinction between good and not-good is the same as water having no distinction between east and west.

Mencius said:

Indeed, it is true that water has no distinction between east and west.
However, can one say it has no distinction between up and down?
The fact that human nature is good is like water flowing to a lower place.
There is no human who is not good. There is no water that does not flow downward.

Of course, if you strike water with your hand and splash it, you can make it go over your forehead.
If you strongly dam it and make it flow, you can make it exist on top of a mountain.
However, how could that be the true nature of water?
It is only becoming that way due to force applied from the outside.
The fact that a human can be made to do evil is, regarding their nature, exactly the same as this.

7 Explanation of Vocabulary and Grammar

Sei yuu tansui nari (性猶湍水也)

"Yuu" is read as 'naho... no gotoshi' and expresses a metaphor.
"Tansui" is fast-flowing water or swirling water.

Gaozi compares human nature to water.
Water flows east or west depending on how it is guided. Therefore, his idea is that human nature is also something neutral that can become either good or evil.

Ketsu kore wo touhou ni kessureba sunawachi touryuu su (決諸東方則東流)

"Ketsu" means to open a water channel.
"Sho" is a word that is easy to understand if you think of it as a contracted form of 'kore wo... ni' (之於).

Ketsu sho touhou (決諸東方)
= Kore wo touhou ni kessu (之を東方に決す)
= To open a channel so that it flows to the east

"Soku" is read as 'sunawachi' and connects a condition and a result, meaning 'if you do so'.

If you open a path to the east, it flows east.
If you open a path to the west, it flows west.

By repeating the same sentence structure, Gaozi's argument is presented clearly.

Human nature has no distinction between good and not-good.

The 'zhi' (之) here is placed between the subject and the predicate, functioning to nominalize the sentence.

Human nature has no distinction between good and not-good
= The fact that human nature has no distinction between good and not-good

'Yu' (於) indicates the object, and can be thought of as 'in terms of good and not-good'.

Gaozi argues that there is no distinction between good and not-good in human nature.

Water truly has no distinction between east and west.

Mencius first accepts Gaozi's metaphor.

'Xin' (信) is read as 'makoto ni' and means 'indeed' or 'certainly'.

Water truly has no distinction between east and west.
It is certainly true that water has no distinction between east and west.

In this way, Mencius's skill in argumentation lies in accepting the opponent's claim first, and then striking at the weakness of that metaphor.

Is there no distinction between up and down?

'Hu' (乎) is a particle that expresses a question or a rhetorical question.
Here, it is used rhetorically,

Can it be said there is no distinction between up and down?
It means, 'Can one say there is no distinction between up and down? No, there is.'

That is what it means.

Gaozi said, 'Water flows either east or west.'
Mencius replies to that, 'But doesn't water naturally flow downward?'

East and west are differences in direction.
Up and down are natural inclinations.

Through this shift, Mencius uses the metaphor of water in reverse to explain his own theory of innate goodness.

The goodness of human nature is like water flowing downward.

"Jiu" is read as 'tsuku' and means 'to head toward' or 'to follow.'
"Xia" refers to a low place.

Ren xing zhi shan ye
= As for the goodness of human nature

You shui zhi jiu xia ye
= It is like water flowing to a low place

In other words, the fact that human nature heads toward goodness is a natural process, just as water flows to a low place.

Mencius's theory of original goodness is expressed here through a very clear metaphor.

Ren wu you bu shan, shui wu you bu xia

"Wu you bu shan" is a form close to a double negative.
It is read as 'There is no one who is not good.'

Ren wu you bu shan
= There is no human who is not good

Shui wu you bu xia
= There is no water that does not flow downward

This part is written in parallel structure.

Human and water.
Goodness and downward.
No one who is not good and no water that does not flow downward.

Understanding these correspondences makes it easier to grasp the meaning of the text.

Jin fu shui, bo er yue zhi

"Jin fu" is read as 'ima sore' and is an introductory phrase used when changing the topic or introducing a specific example.
It is natural to translate it as 'Now.'

"Bo" is read as 'utsu' and means to strike with one's hand or similar.
"Yue zhi" is read as 'kore o odorasu' and means to make water splash up.

If you strike water, it will temporarily splash upward.
However, that is not the true nature of water. It is the result of an external force being applied.

Ke shi guo sang

"Ke shi" is read as '...seshimu beshi' and means 'can make [something] do [something].'

"Sang" (顙) means forehead.

Kashi kousou
= Let it pass the forehead
= Can make it go over the forehead

Here, it is saying that if you strike water hard, the spray will leap higher than the forehead.

Ze ki sui no sei naru ya

"Ki... ya" (豈...哉) is a rhetorical question form.

How could this be the nature of water?
= How could this be the nature of water? No, it is not its nature.

Mencius acknowledges that if an external force is applied, water can be made to go upward.
However, that is not the original nature of water. He says that the nature of water is, after all, to flow downward.

Ki sei soku zen nari

"Sei" (勢) is the force applied from the outside, the momentum of the situation.
"Zen" (然) means "to become so".

The momentum makes it so.
= It is the externally applied momentum that makes it so.

This sentence is important for understanding Mencius's theory of original goodness.

People do commit evil.
However, that is not because human nature itself is evil.
It is because of external forces such as environment, desire, pressure, and a lack of education.

That is how Mencius thinks.

8 What is Mencius's theory of original goodness?

Let us organize Mencius's theory of original goodness based on the two passages we have read so far.

First, Mencius believed that there are "four beginnings" within the human heart.
These are the four: compassion, shame and dislike, deference and compliance, and right and wrong. These are the sprouts of the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom.

Second, those sprouts are not complete from the beginning.
Like a fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to gush, they are small at first. That is precisely why people must expand and fulfill them.

Third, Mencius does not deny that people commit evil.
However, he believes that this is not because nature itself is evil, but rather that, just as water leaps upward when struck from the outside, it has lost its original direction due to external forces or circumstances.

Therefore, Mencius's theory of human nature as good is not merely an optimistic view.

People are good.
Therefore, there is no need to do anything.

That is not the case.

People have the sprouts of goodness within them.
Therefore, they must be nurtured.

This is Mencius's argument.

9 Confucius's 'Ren' and Mencius's 'Human Nature as Good'

In the Analects, which we read in Part 32, Confucius valued 'Ren' (benevolence). Ren is the heart that cares for others and lives as a proper human being.

Mencius inherited this Ren from Confucius and took it a step further.

Ren is not something that is forcibly imposed from the outside.
Its sprouts already exist within the human heart.

For example, if one sees a young child about to fall into a well, one's heart is moved instantly. The heart in that moment is not born from calculating profit or honor.

Mencius saw the basis of what makes a human being human in that small movement of the heart.

If Confucius preached 'practice Ren,' Mencius preached 'the sprouts of Ren are already within you.'

10 Summary—A Philosophy of Nurturing the Sprouts of Goodness

The theory of human nature as good in Mencius is not a philosophy that idealizes human beings. The reality of the Warring States period was filled with war, power struggles, famine, and betrayal. Mencius knew that harsh reality.

Even so, Mencius believed in the small sprouts of goodness within the human heart.

The heart that feels pain at the suffering of others.
The heart that feels shame for one's own evil.
The heart of yielding to others.
The heart that judges whether something is right or wrong.

These are present in everyone's heart. However, they will be lost if not nurtured.
That is why learning is necessary, self-cultivation is necessary, and good government is necessary.

Mencius's theory of human nature as good can be rephrased as follows.

Humans are born with the potential to live well.
Believing in that potential and nurturing it is the human way.

Next time, we will read Xunzi's "Theory of Innate Evil," which is often discussed in contrast to Mencius's philosophy, and consider the differences in their views on humanity.

Review Questions

Question 1

Explain what kind of heart the "heart that cannot bear the suffering of others" (bu ren ren zhi xin) in the phrase "All people have a heart that cannot bear the suffering of others" refers to.

Sample Answer

A heart that cannot calmly overlook the suffering or danger of others. For example, when one sees a young child about to fall into a well, it is the heart that feels a sudden urge to help before thinking about personal gain or reputation.

Question 2

What are the "four sprouts" (si duan) mentioned by Mencius? List all four and answer what virtue each is a sprout of.

Sample Answer

The heart of compassion is the sprout of benevolence (ren), the heart of shame and dislike is the sprout of righteousness (yi), the heart of deference and compliance is the sprout of propriety (li), and the heart of right and wrong is the sprout of wisdom (zhi). A sprout means the beginning or bud of something.

Question 3

Transcribe "Ren xing zhi shan ye, you shui zhi jiu xia ye" into Japanese reading (kakikudashi) and explain its meaning.

Sample Answer

The transcription is "Jinsei no zen naru ya, nao mizu no hikuki ni tsuku ga gotoki nari."
The meaning is that the human nature moving toward goodness is like water naturally flowing to a lower place.

Question 4

How does Mencius explain why people commit evil acts?

Sample Answer

Mencius acknowledges that people do commit evil. However, he explains that this is not because human nature is inherently evil, but rather because, like water that splashes upward when struck from the outside, people lose their original good direction due to external forces and circumstances.

Question 5

Mencius's theory of original goodness is not the idea that "people are good even if they do nothing." Based on the content of the text, explain the reason for this.

Example Answer

Mencius teaches that humans possess the 'four beginnings,' which are the sprouts of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, but these are merely sprouts and not perfected virtues. Therefore, 'extending and filling them'—that is, the self-cultivation to expand and fulfill them—is necessary. Thus, the theory of original goodness is a philosophy that posits the potential for goodness within humans, and it does not mean that one is a perfectly good person without effort.

◆◆Column◆◆

Column 1

Why is the "child about to fall into a well" famous?

When discussing Mencius's theory of original goodness, there is a scene that is almost always brought up.
That is the scene of "a child about to fall into a well."

This parable is very short. However, its power is immense. This is because Mencius is not trying to prove human goodness here through difficult logic. He presents an extremely concrete scene that anyone can imagine.

If a young child were about to fall into a well right in front of you, what would you do? Would you first think, "Will I gain honor if I save them?" Would you calculate, "Can I become close to this child's parents?" Would you think, "I'll save them reluctantly because I'll be spoken ill of if I abandon them"?

Mencius says that is not the case. In that moment, a person is startled. Their heart aches. They instinctively reach out. That movement of the heart is the "heart of compassion."

What is important here is that Mencius is not saying that "people always perform noble actions." In reality, some people might be unable to move out of fear. Others might leave it to someone else if there is someone nearby. However, what Mencius is looking at is the momentary movement of the heart that occurs before that.

"Oh, it's dangerous!"
"Poor thing."
"I must save them."

Mencius believed that if such a heart does not arise at all, then one has lost the heart of a human being.

This parable is famous because it finds human goodness not in distant ideals or the actions of saints, but in a fleeting moment of daily life. For Mencius, goodness is not something possessed only by special people. It is something that is already stirring within our hearts.

The scene of the child about to fall into a well is the gateway to the entire theory of original goodness. Through this one scene, before commanding "Be good," Mencius is speaking to us, saying, "Within you, there is already a heart that moves toward goodness."

Column 2

The Heart of Compassion — Does Empathy Arise from Calculation?

Mencius stated that humans possess a 'heart of compassion.' Compassion is the heart that feels the suffering of others as painful and cannot simply overlook it. The analogy of 'a child about to fall into a well,' which we read in the main text of No. 33, is placed there to explain this heart of compassion.

What Mencius emphasizes here is the point that 'this heart does not arise from calculation.'

A young child is about to fall into a well. When a person sees this, they are instantly startled and feel pain in their heart. However, that heart does not arise from a desire to become close to the child's parents. It does not arise from a desire to gain honor from the villagers or friends. It is not that they feel this way because they have no choice, fearing a bad reputation if they abandon the child.

Mencius carefully denies these three things.

It is not to associate with the parents.
It is not to gain a reputation in society.
It is not to avoid bad rumors.

In other words, the heart of compassion is a heart that arises before considerations of profit, loss, or reputation.

Of course, our actions are often mixed with calculation. We want to be thought well of by others. We do not want to fail. We do not want to suffer a loss. Such feelings are not unusual for humans. However, Mencius is looking at the heart that exists more fundamentally, before it is covered by those calculations.

When we see the suffering of others, our hearts ache.
When someone is in danger, we are startled.
When we see someone in trouble, we want to do something to help.

Mencius considered this kind of heart to be the foundation of human nature.

The empathy referred to here is not mere sentimentality. It is the starting point for humans to be human. That is why Mencius even says, 'He who lacks the heart of compassion is not human.' This is a 'word to reproach cold-hearted people,' and at the same time, it is an expression of strong trust that 'humans should inherently possess such a heart.'

Empathy does not always appear in a beautiful form. It can be small, weak, and disappear quickly. However, Mencius saw the sprout of benevolence (Ren) within those small movements of the heart.

The theory of innate goodness is not the idea that 'humans always do good things.'
Rather, it is the philosophy that 'in the human heart, there is a sprout that reaches out to others beyond profit and loss.'

Column 3

What are the Four Beginnings? — Not the completed form of goodness, but the sprout of goodness

One of the most important terms for understanding Mencius's theory of innate goodness is the 'Four Beginnings.'

The Four Beginnings mean four ends, that is, four beginnings or four sprouts. Mencius said that the human heart possesses the following four.

The heart of compassion.
The heart of shame and dislike.
The heart of deference and compliance.
The heart of right and wrong.

And he explained that each of these is the beginning of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom.

The heart of compassion is the beginning of benevolence.
The heart of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness.
The heart of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety.
The heart of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom.

What we must note here is that Mencius is not saying that "humans are born as perfect beings fully equipped with benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom." If that were the case, there would be no need for learning or self-cultivation. However, Mencius argues the exact opposite.

People have sprouts of goodness.
However, they are still just sprouts.
Therefore, they must be nurtured.

This word "beginning" (duan) is very important.

For example, the sprout of a plant is not a large tree as it is. It is small, weak, and easily trampled. However, it holds the potential for growth. If you water it, expose it to the sun, and tend to the soil, it will eventually grow large.

The human heart is the same.

The heart that feels pity for someone is the sprout of benevolence.
The heart that feels shame for evil is the sprout of righteousness.
The heart that yields to others is the sprout of propriety.
The heart that distinguishes between right and wrong is the sprout of wisdom.

However, if you do not nurture those sprouts, they will not grow into great benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. Even if a heart of compassion arises for a moment, it does not become benevolence unless you connect it to action. Even if you have a heart that feels shame for evil, it does not become righteousness unless you turn it into correct conduct.

The reason Mencius's theory of original goodness is easily misunderstood is that hearing only the words "original goodness" makes it sound like "humans are good people from the start." But if you read the text carefully, Mencius argues that the "Four Beginnings" must be "extended and filled," meaning they must be expanded and fulfilled.

It is not enough to simply possess goodness.
Goodness is something to be nurtured.

In this sense, Mencius's theory of original goodness is not a naive view of humanity. Rather, it is a philosophy that believes in the potential within humans and teaches the responsibility to nurture that potential.

Column 4

"The fire just beginning to burn"—So as not to extinguish small goodness

Mencius compared the Four Beginnings in the human heart to "a fire just beginning to burn."
"Ran" here has the same meaning as "burn," referring to a fire igniting. In other words, it means "it is like a fire that is just starting to catch."

This metaphor is very beautiful. This is because the heart of goodness is not depicted as a large flame from the beginning.

The goodness within a person is a small fire at first.
It is a faint spark.
It might go out if a wind blows.
If left alone, it might cool down before it can spread.

However, a fire is not worthless because it is small. Even a small fire can become a large flame if you protect it, provide fuel, and manage the wind. It becomes a power that illuminates dark places, wards off the cold, and warms people.

The Four Beginnings that Mencius speaks of are the same as this.

The heart that wishes to help someone.
The heart that feels shame for doing something wrong.
The heart that yields a step to others.
The heart that wishes to choose what is right.

These may initially be very small movements of the heart. They may be things that are easily lost in the course of daily life. However, Mencius did not underestimate that small heart. He saw that it is precisely there that the beginnings of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom lie.

We often tend to think that only great goodness is goodness. Heroic actions, major decisions that save people, and noble deeds that remain in history. Of course, these are precious. However, Mencius's eyes were also directed toward much smaller places.

Seeing someone in trouble and feeling a slight stir in one's heart.
Feeling a pang in one's chest after doing something wrong.
Feeling that it is better to yield to the other person.
Pausing to wonder if this might be wrong.

Not letting such small fires go out.
That is the first step of self-cultivation.

Mencius says, "If one can fully extend these, they are sufficient to protect the four seas." He means that if one can sufficiently expand and fulfill these four beginnings, one can even bring peace to the world. A small fire eventually becomes a great light. A small goodness eventually moves people and changes society.

The metaphor of "fire beginning to burn" teaches us this.

Goodness does not need to be great from the start.
However, it must not be extinguished.
By protecting the small fire, people begin to live well.

Column 5

"Water flows downward" — The most beautiful metaphor for the theory of original goodness

Among the metaphors that express Mencius's theory of original goodness, the most famous is "water flows downward."

Gaozi compared human nature to water. Water can be made to flow east or west. Therefore, human nature is not determined to be either good or evil. It is the idea that it becomes either good or evil depending on the environment.

In response to this, Mencius accepts Gaozi's metaphor as it is. And he asks back like this.

It is certain that water has no distinction between east and west.
However, can it be said that it has no distinction between up and down?

This is the sharp point of Mencius's argument.

Indeed, water flows east or west depending on how the waterway is built. However, water has a natural direction. It is the direction of flowing from a high place to a low place. Unless force is applied from the outside, water does not flow upward.

Mencius superimposed this natural direction onto human goodness.

The fact that human nature heads toward goodness is like water flowing downward.
There is no one who is not good as a human being.
It is the same as saying there is no water that does not flow downward.

Of course, this expression is very strong. In reality, people do commit evil acts. Driven by anger, desire, fear, and self-interest, people can perform unvirtuous deeds. It is not that Mencius was unaware of this.

Therefore, Mencius continues with the metaphor of water.

If you strike water with your hand, the spray can leap higher than your forehead.
If you dam it up and force it to flow, you can even make it go up a mountain.
But is that the true nature of water?

Water leaping upward happens because an external force is applied to it. The inherent nature of water is, after all, to flow downward. In the same way, Mencius believed that when people perform unvirtuous acts, it is not because their nature itself is evil, but because they have lost their original direction due to external forces and circumstances.

The beauty of this metaphor lies not merely in its simplicity. It lies in the perspective Mencius holds when looking at humanity.

People become disordered.
People make mistakes.
People sometimes commit evil.
Even so, deep within them, there is a flow toward goodness.

Just as water flows downward, the human heart has an original direction. Mencius believed this.

The metaphor that "water tends to flow downward" is a phrase that encapsulates the theory of original goodness. The appeal of Mencius's philosophy lies in his view of the human heart not as a set of imposed rules, but as a natural force flowing from within.

Column 6

Gaozi's Counterargument — Is Human Nature Truly Good?

To understand Mencius's theory of original goodness, one must look not only at his claims but also at the counterarguments against them. His most representative opponent is Gaozi.

Gaozi compared human nature to water.

If you open a channel to the east, water flows east.
If you open a channel to the west, it flows west.
Therefore, water itself does not have a fixed nature of being east or west.

Gaozi applied this to human nature.
Human nature also has no clear distinction between good and evil. Depending on environment, education, and habits, it can become either good or evil. That is what he thought.

This argument is by no means strange. Rather, it is a way of thinking that is easy for us to understand today.

People change according to their environment.
Where one is raised, the people one meets, the education one receives, and the structure of society all cause human behavior to change significantly.
Therefore, can we really say that human nature is determined to be good from the start?

Gaozi's thinking contains this kind of realistic sensibility.

If you read only Mencius's theory of original goodness, the statement "people are good" might sound a bit simple. However, when read alongside Gaozi's counterargument, it becomes clear what Mencius was trying to answer.

Mencius does not deny the influence of the environment. Rather, he acknowledges that just as water can be made to leap upward if struck from the outside, people can also commit evil acts due to external forces. In other words, Mencius also knew that "people change according to their environment."

Even so, Mencius believed that there is an inherent direction within human beings toward goodness. This is where he differs from Gaozi.

Gaozi viewed human nature as neutral.
Mencius viewed human nature as something that moves toward goodness.

This difference also leads to different ways of thinking about education and politics. If human nature were completely neutral, education would mean shaping it from the outside. However, for Mencius, education is the cultivation of the sprouts of goodness that already exist within a person.

Gaozi's counterargument is an important mirror for a deeper understanding of Mencius's theory of original goodness. Mencius did not simply say, "People are good." He acknowledged the reality that "people are influenced by their environment," and yet, he still sought to see the roots of goodness within human beings.

Column 7

Is the Theory of Original Goodness an Optimistic View?

When we hear that "human nature is good," it might feel like an overly optimistic idea. There is conflict, betrayal, and violence in the world. People are often selfish and can hurt others. Looking at such realities, the statement "people are good" can seem like a naive ideal.

However, Mencius's theory of original goodness is not a simple form of optimism.

First, what is important is the era in which Mencius lived. Mencius did not talk about human goodness in a leisurely way during a peaceful and stable era. He lived during the Warring States period. Countries were at war, strong nations attacked weak ones, and monarchs competed to enrich their countries and strengthen their armies. Human lives were often treated as tools of politics.

In such an era, Mencius dared to say, "People have sprouts of goodness."

This is not a naivety that ignores reality. Rather, it is a philosophy that does not completely abandon humanity amidst harsh realities.

Mencius does not deny that people commit evil. Just as water can be made to leap upward if struck, he acknowledges that people can commit evil due to external forces or their environment. However, he does not use that to say, "Human nature is evil." He believes that when people commit evil, it is because their original good direction has been obstructed or distorted.

Furthermore, Mencius does not say that people will become noble human beings without doing anything. People have the "four beginnings." However, these are merely "beginnings," or sprouts. One must "expand and fill them" (kuo er chong zhi).

Herein lies the rigor of the theory of original goodness.

People have sprouts of goodness.
This does not mean you can rest easy.
People have sprouts of goodness.
Therefore, you have the responsibility to cultivate them.

Mencius's theory of original goodness is a philosophy that combines trust in humanity with demands upon humanity. Humans have the potential to live well. That is precisely why you must not give up on yourself. You must not label others as evil from the start. Politics and education must be things that cultivate that potential.

The theory of original goodness is not a sweet consolation.
It is a strong philosophy that bets on human potential.

Column 8

The Theory of Innate Goodness and Education: The Idea of Nurturing Sprouts

When we read Mencius's theory of innate goodness from the perspective of education, something very important comes into view.

If there were absolutely no sprouts of goodness within a human being, education would mean forcibly imposing a shape from the outside. The child would be an empty vessel, and adults would pour knowledge and morality into it. Or, it would be like forcibly straightening a crooked tree. That is the kind of educational view that would result.

However, Mencius believed that people possess four beginnings: the heart of compassion, the heart of shame and dislike, the heart of deference and compliance, and the heart of right and wrong. These are the sprouts of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. In other words, the potential to move toward goodness already exists within people.

Based on this idea, what is education?

It is not about planting something else from the outside.
It is about finding, protecting, and nurturing the sprouts that are already there.

A child worries about someone.
A child feels awkward after doing something wrong.
A child lets a friend go first.
A child feels, "Isn't that wrong?"

Adults must not overlook these small movements of the heart. They are small, but they are important sprouts. If you trample on them, saying, "Such things are useless," the sprouts will weaken. Conversely, if you help the child realize, "These feelings are important," and connect them to action, those sprouts will grow little by little.

Mencius's concept of "extending and filling" can also be read as a term for education. Extend and fill the sprouts of goodness. Extend small acts of kindness into concrete actions. Extend a small sense of shame into making the right choices. Extend small acts of mutual concession into all human relationships. Extend small judgments of right and wrong into the foundation of one's way of life.

What is important here is that education is not merely the transmission of knowledge. For Mencius, learning was about cultivating the heart. One cannot live well just by increasing knowledge. It is necessary to notice the four beginnings within oneself and nurture them.

The theory of innate goodness is not a philosophy that spoils children. Rather, because it believes in the potential within children, it demands that adults take responsibility for developing that potential.

People are born with sprouts of goodness.
Education is the endeavor to nurture those sprouts so they do not wither.

Read in this way, Mencius's theory of innate goodness holds deep implications that are relevant to modern education as well.

Column 9

The Theory of Innate Goodness and Politics: Why the Heart Connects to Politics

Mencius's theory of innate goodness does not stop at the issue of the individual heart. Rather, for Mencius, the human heart and politics were deeply connected.

At the beginning of the main text of Part 33, it says:

"The ancient kings had hearts that could not bear to see the suffering of others, and thus they had governments that could not bear to see the suffering of others."

This means that the great kings of the past had a heart that could not overlook the suffering of others. That is precisely why they had a government that did not overlook the suffering of others.

Herein lies the foundation of Mencius's political thought.

Politics is not something that consists solely of systems and laws. Of course, systems and laws are necessary. However, if there is no heart at the root that cannot overlook the suffering of the people, politics becomes cold. Even if the people are starving, it is viewed only as a numerical problem. Even if people die in war, it is considered only as a matter of territory or profit. Mencius does not accept such politics.

Mencius often directed harsh words toward monarchs. This is because the heart of a monarch directly affects the lives of many people. If one king has a heart that cares for the people, many are saved. Conversely, if one king is swayed by greed or a desire for power, many people suffer.

Therefore, Mencius placed the "heart that cannot bear to see the suffering of others" at the root of politics.

A heart that cannot overlook the suffering of others.
When it exists within an individual, it is called the heart of compassion.
When it manifests as politics, it becomes the government that cannot bear to see the suffering of others.

This idea leads to Mencius's theory of benevolent government. Benevolent government is politics based on benevolence. It is not politics that suppresses the people by force, but politics that secures the lives of the people and removes their suffering.

Mencius believed that "humans have sprouts of goodness." That is precisely why the people can also respond to benevolence. Politics that wins the hearts of the people through benevolence and righteousness becomes possible, rather than politics that forces obedience through power. Herein lies the connection between the theory of human nature as good and the kingly way of politics.

Even today, when thinking about politics, not only systems and the economy, but a "heart that cannot overlook the suffering of others" is indispensable. Disasters, poverty, education, medical care, aging, loneliness. Most of the problems that politics deals with are, in the end, problems of how to face the suffering of others.

Mencius's words were directed at the kings of ancient China, but they still question us today.

Is there a heart that cares for people at the starting point of politics?
Are we not overlooking the suffering of others?

The theory of human nature as good is a philosophy of the heart, and at the same time, it is a philosophy of politics.

Column 10

The theory of human nature as good and the theory of human nature as evil — which is correct?

When one thinks of Mencius, one thinks of the theory of human nature as good; when one thinks of Xunzi, one thinks of the theory of human nature as evil.
When studying Chinese thought, these two are often contrasted.

Mencius believed that human nature is good. He argued that people have the four beginnings of compassion, shame, deference, and right/wrong, and that if these are nurtured, they develop into benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. He taught that the tendency of human nature toward goodness is like water flowing to a lower place.

In contrast, it is generally explained that Xunzi believed that human nature is evil. It is the idea that people are born with desires and, if left alone, will head toward conflict. Therefore, they must be regulated through propriety and education.

So, are Mencius and Xunzi completely opposite?

Certainly, their starting points are very different. Mencius sees the sprouts of goodness within humans. Xunzi sees that if human desires are left as they are, chaos will arise. Mencius emphasizes the goodness that grows from within, while Xunzi emphasizes the propriety that regulates from the outside.

However, there are also commonalities between the two.

The point they both share is that neither believes "humans are complete just as they are."

Mencius advocates the theory of original goodness, but he does not say that people will become noble figures without doing anything. The four beginnings are merely sprouts, and one must "expand and fill them."
Xunzi advocates the theory of original evil, but he does not say that people are beyond saving because they are evil. He believes that through ritual and learning, people can be refined and live well.

In other words, both Mencius and Xunzi place great importance on learning and self-cultivation.

What differs is the perspective from which they view humanity.

Mencius saw the beginnings of goodness within people.
Xunzi saw the dangers of desire within people.

Mencius says to nurture the sprouts.
Xunzi says to refine the form.

Rather than simply deciding that one or the other is correct, it is easier to understand these two as two perspectives for viewing humanity.

In our hearts, there is certainly a sense of compassion. When we see someone in trouble, we sometimes want to help them. When we do something wrong, we sometimes feel ashamed. This is the image of humanity that Mencius saw.

On the other hand, we also have desires. We have feelings of wanting to prioritize ourselves. We also have thoughts of wanting to take it easy, wanting to gain an advantage, and wanting to win over others. This is the image of humanity that Xunzi saw.

Humans are beings that possess the sprouts of goodness.
At the same time, they are beings that, if left alone, will be swept away by desire.

Thinking of it this way, the contrast between Mencius and Xunzi is not just a conflict of ancient philosophies, but a clue to thinking about our own hearts.

The theory of original goodness by Mencius that we read in Part 33 is a philosophy that believes in human potential. When you read Xunzi's theory of original evil next, it would be good to read it as a philosophy that looks at the dangers of humanity. By comparing the two, the Confucian view of humanity will appear even more three-dimensional.