[History] Marriage Systems and Slavery in the Mediterranean World Around 47 BC

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[History] Marriage Systems and Slavery in the Mediterranean World Around 47 BC
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🔴 Slave Trader (Story of 47 BC ①)
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When people hear the term "slavery," many often imagine the abduction and exploitation of Black people from the African continent to the Americas between the 16th and early 20th centuries, as that is what is most commonly known.

However, the "slavery" of the ancient Mediterranean world was different from that image. The race of the slaves varied; there were blonde-haired, blue-eyed girls from the Caucasus, and the masters were not necessarily white. It was a world where jet-black people from Ethiopia could own white people as slaves.

Now, let us consider here: did the institution of slavery help maintain the population?

Marriage Systems and Slavery in the Mediterranean World Around 47 BC

The Impact of Different Marriage Systems on Population Maintenance

Around 47 BC, the Mediterranean world, centered on the Roman Republic, Egypt, and Greece, was a region full of political and cultural diversity. During this period, Cleopatra VII formed an alliance with Julius Caesar of Rome, and the Roman Republic was entering an era of civil war. Against this historical backdrop, marriage systems and slavery had a significant impact on social structures and demographics. In this essay, we will examine (1) the marriage systems of Rome, Greece, and Egypt, (2) the roles of male and female slaves, and (3) the role slavery played in population maintenance, based on historical facts.

1. Diversity of Marriage Systems: Monogamy, Polygamy, and Harems

Around 47 BC, marriage systems in the Mediterranean world varied greatly depending on the region and culture. Below, we provide an overview of the characteristics of the marriage systems in Rome, Greece, and Egypt based on historical facts.

1) Roman Marriage System: Monogamy and Social Function

In the Roman Republic, monogamy was legally established and practiced. Roman marriage was broadly divided into "marriage with manus" (cum manu) and "free marriage" (sine manu). In a manus marriage, the wife was placed under the patriarchal authority of her husband, and her property and legal status were transferred to her husband's family. On the other hand, in a free marriage, the wife retained the legal status of her natal family and had relatively high independence. By around 47 BC, free marriage was becoming common. This reflected changes in the social status of women and the flexibility of property management.

Roman marriage was often aimed at strengthening family lineage or political alliances rather than love or passion. For example, Julius Caesar's daughter, Julia, married Pompey to strengthen the political ties with him. Divorce was also relatively easy, and it was common for women to build new alliances through remarriage. However, while women's remarriage increased opportunities for childbearing and contributed to maintaining the lineage of the aristocratic class, the strict monogamy left room for unofficial relationships with concubines and slaves.

2) Greek Marriage System: Patriarchy and Monogamy

In Classical Greece (especially Athens), monogamy was the norm but the purpose of marriage was the continuation of the household (oikos) and the securing of descendants. Athenian women married men with citizenship and took on the role of bearing legitimate offspring.

However, men were tacitly allowed to have relationships with hetairai (high-class courtesans) or concubines, and strict monogamy did not limit the sexual freedom of men. In Sparta, the status of women was slightly higher, and their roles in property management and child-rearing were emphasized, but marriage itself functioned within a patriarchal framework.

3) Egyptian Marriage System: Polygamy and Incestuous Marriage

In Ptolemaic Egypt, polygamy and harem-like elements were observed. Especially in the royal family, incestuous marriage was practiced as a custom, and maintaining the purity of the lineage was emphasized. Cleopatra VII herself was formally married to her brother, Ptolemy XIII, but this had strong symbolic political and religious significance.

Among the general public, monogamy was mainstream, but wealthy men sometimes had relationships with concubines or female slaves, which formed an unofficial polygamous system. Egyptian marriage focused on property inheritance and maintaining the social status of the family, and the legal rights of women were slightly stronger compared to those in Rome or Greece.

4) Other Parts of the Mediterranean World: Diverse Customs

In regions influenced by Carthage and Persia, polygamy and harem systems were observed. In the Persian Achaemenid Empire, kings and nobles had multiple wives and concubines, and the harem functioned as a political and diplomatic tool. In the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, complex marriage customs existed where Greek elements and local cultures merged, leading to the coexistence of monogamy and polygamy.

2. The Role of Slaves

Slavery was the foundation of the economy and social structure of the Mediterranean world around 47 BC. In Rome, Greece, and Egypt, the roles of slaves were clearly differentiated by gender, which influenced labor and cultural functions in their respective societies.

Gender Differences and Contributions to Society

1) Roles of Male Slaves

In Rome, male slaves engaged in a wide range of labor, including agriculture, mining, construction, and commerce. By the end of the Republic, prisoners of war and debt slaves made up the majority of the slave population, forced into harsh labor on large Sicilian estates (latifundia). In urban areas, skilled male slaves worked as scribes, teachers, and doctors, and some slaves were able to obtain citizenship after manumission. In Caesar's time, slaves accounted for about one-third of the Roman population and supported the foundation of the economy.

In Greece, male slaves engaged in farm labor and heavy labor in silver mines (such as the Laurion mines). In Athens, slaves were sometimes mobilized for public works and military activities (e.g., as rowers). In Egypt, male slaves were used as scribes and laborers to support the bureaucracy of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

2) Roles of Female Slaves

Female slaves were primarily engaged in domestic work, childcare, and textile production. In Rome, female slaves in wealthy households took care of children and managed the household, and were sometimes forced into sexual relations with their masters or their families. Children born from this became slaves, contributing to the reproduction of the slave population. In Athens, Greece, female slaves engaged in wool production and food production, generating economic value. In Egypt, female slaves served in temples and royal palaces, sometimes fulfilling religious and symbolic roles.

Sexual exploitation of female slaves was common in all regions, but it was particularly prominent in Rome, where they were also forced to work in brothels. Some female slaves married their former masters after being freed, but this was an exceptional case.

3. Childbirth of Female Slaves and the Possibility of Obtaining Roman Citizenship Based on the Father's Status

Under Roman law, the legal status of a child generally depends on the status of the father, but if the mother is a slave, the child's status becomes particularly complex. Below, the possibilities for a child born to a female slave to obtain Roman citizenship are organized based on the father's social status.

1) If the father is a slave

If a female slave has a child with a male slave, the child automatically becomes a slave (partus sequitur ventrem: the status of the child follows the mother). Due to this principle, if the mother is a slave, the child is born a slave regardless of the father's status and cannot obtain Roman citizenship. However, if the child is later freed (manumission), there was a possibility of obtaining citizenship as a freedman (libertus). Nevertheless, the citizenship of a freedman was limited; for example, the right to run for public office or become a senator was usually not granted (Gaius, Institutiones, 1.17).

2) If the father is a free person (Roman citizen)

Even if a female slave has a child with a Roman citizen (free person), the child is born a slave due to the principle of partus sequitur ventrem. In this case, even if the father is a Roman citizen, the child does not obtain citizenship at birth. However, if the father acknowledges the child and the mother is later freed, the child could also obtain citizenship as a freedman. In particular, at the end of the Republic, there were examples of wealthy Roman citizens freeing children born to slave women and incorporating them into their own households. However, even for descendants of freedmen, it was difficult to hold high public offices such as senator due to social prejudice and legal restrictions.

3) If the father is a freedman

A freedman (libertus) has Roman citizenship, but it was a limited status rather than full citizenship (optimo iure). If a female slave has a child with a freedman, the child is still born a slave and cannot obtain citizenship. However, if the freedman father had the financial means to free the child and the mother, the child could obtain citizenship as a freedman. In this case as well, the path to high public office such as senator was often closed.

4) If the father is a non-citizen (peregrinus)

If the father is a non-citizen (e.g., a provincial or foreigner), the child is born a slave following the mother's slave status. Since a non-citizen father does not have Roman citizenship, the path for the child to obtain citizenship is even narrower. However, there were rare cases where the child obtained citizenship if the mother was freed and the father later obtained Roman citizenship (e.g., special measures under Caesar's provincial administration).

◯ Childbirth by enslaved women and its impact on society

　Childbirth by enslaved women was essential to the sustainability of the slave system. Around 47 BC, during a period of civil war when the supply of prisoners of war was unstable, the natural increase (births) of slaves played a crucial role in maintaining the labor force. Children born to enslaved women joined the labor force as slaves regardless of the father's status and were utilized in fields such as agriculture, construction, and domestic work. In cases where some children became freedmen and gained citizenship, they replenished the urban population of Rome and the labor force of the lower classes, thereby increasing social mobility.

◯ Roman citizenship for children born to prostitutes and the path to becoming a senator

　Prostitutes (meretrix) were often regarded as having a status equal to or lower than that of slaves in Roman society and were subject to strict legal and social constraints. The possibility of a child born to a prostitute obtaining Roman citizenship or becoming a senator depended on the following factors.

◯ Legal status of prostitutes

　Prostitutes could be slaves, freedwomen, or freeborn citizens. A child born to an enslaved prostitute became a slave through partus sequitur ventrem and could not obtain citizenship. A child born to a freedwoman prostitute could potentially obtain citizenship if the father was a Roman citizen, but the social stigma (infamia) associated with the profession of a prostitute affected the child's status. In the case of a freeborn prostitute, if the father was a Roman citizen, the child was more likely to obtain citizenship, but the prostitute's infamia was a factor that lowered the child's social standing.

◯ Acquisition of Roman citizenship

　The citizenship of a child born to a prostitute depended on the father's status and the existence of a marriage. Without a legal marriage (iustum matrimonium), the child was considered an "illegitimate child" (spurius), and the path to obtaining citizenship was narrow. If a prostitute bore a child through an informal relationship (concubinatus) with a Roman citizen, the child could potentially be granted citizenship if the father acknowledged them, but this was rare. Around 47 BC, the acquisition of citizenship by a child of a prostitute was limited to exceptional cases and required legal documentation and the active involvement of the father.

◯ Possibility of becoming a senator

　The possibility of a child born to a prostitute becoming a senator was virtually non-existent. To become a senator, one was required to be freeborn (ingenuus), meet property requirements (1 million sesterces or more), and possess a high social reputation (regulated by the Lex Julia). Even if a child of a prostitute obtained citizenship, the mother's infamia became a stain on the family line, preventing entry into the Senate. Furthermore, descendants of freedmen (libertini) were legally and customarily restricted from becoming senators in the late Republic, and there are no historically confirmed examples of a child of a prostitute reaching this status.

◯ Impact on society

　Children born to prostitutes were often absorbed into Roman society as lower-class laborers or artisans. If they did not possess citizenship, they performed economic roles similar to those of slaves and non-citizens, engaging in urban service industries and manual labor. Even if they obtained citizenship, social prejudice made it difficult for them to rise to the upper classes.

　In Rome around 47 BC, the acquisition of Roman citizenship by a child born to an enslaved woman depended heavily on the father's status, but due to the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, it was customary for the child to be born a slave if the mother was a slave. Even if the father was a Roman citizen or a freedman, the child's acquisition of citizenship required a manumission process, and the path to becoming a senator was almost entirely closed.

　The acquisition of citizenship by a child born to a prostitute depended on the father's status and acknowledgment, but the social stigma of infamia limited the child's status, and there was virtually no possibility of becoming a senator. While these systems maintained the hierarchical structure and labor supply of Roman society, they were mechanisms that strictly limited the social advancement of the descendants of slaves and prostitutes.

4. Slavery and Population Maintenance: A Perspective on Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

　The slave system played a major role in maintaining the population of the Mediterranean world. As the birth rate of free citizens declined, the reproduction of the slave population supported the labor force and economic stability of society. Here, we estimate the Total Fertility Rate (TFR: the average number of births a woman has in her lifetime) and examine the impact of the slave system.

1) Birth rates and population dynamics of free citizens

　The TFR of Roman free citizens is estimated to be around 2.0 to 2.5, due to urbanization, the absence of men due to war, and economic burdens. This is close to the modern population replacement level (approximately 2.1), but because the infant mortality rate was high at 30-40%, actual population growth was limited. In the aristocratic class in particular, there was a tendency to limit childbearing to avoid the division of property, and the political use of marriage was prioritized.

　In Athens, Greece, the TFR is also estimated to be around 2.0 to 2.5, but childbearing was concentrated among women of the citizen class, and children of the poor and slaves could not obtain citizenship. In Egypt, a high birth rate in rural areas (TFR approximately 3.0 to 4.0) is estimated, but it had declined in urban areas just as it had in Rome.

2) Birth rates and population reproduction of slaves

The TFR of slaves may have been slightly higher than that of free people. Female slaves were often forced to bear children from a young age, and the TFR is estimated to be around 3.0 to 3.5. However, due to harsh working conditions and malnutrition, the infant mortality rate for slaves was higher than that of free people, potentially reaching nearly 50% (Scheidel, 2005). Nevertheless, the children of slaves were added to the workforce as new slaves, contributing to population reproduction.

In Rome, about one-third of the slave population was female, and their childbirths supported the sustainability of the slave system. During periods when the supply of prisoners of war was unstable (around 47 BC was a period of civil war, leading to a decrease in the supply of prisoners), the natural increase (births) of slaves was particularly important. In Egypt, slave children were utilized as labor in Ptolemaic temples and farms, contributing to the maintenance of the slave population.

3) Impact on Population Maintenance

The slave system contributed to population maintenance by supplementing the low birth rate of free people. In Rome's total population (approximately 50 million, with 7 to 10 million slaves), slave births guaranteed a stable supply of labor. If we assume a slave woman's TFR was 3.0 and the infant survival rate was 50%, 100 slave women would give birth to about 150 children per year, with 75 reaching adulthood. This reproduction rate exceeded the birth rate of free people (TFR 2.0, with about 70 children reaching adulthood at a 70% survival rate), contributing to the sustainability of the slave population.

Furthermore, manumission influenced the demographics of Roman society. Freed slaves could obtain citizenship as free people, and their descendants increased the Roman citizen population. Especially in the time of Caesar, the increase in freed slaves compensated for labor shortages in urban areas, but it also created tensions in the social hierarchy.

🔴 Conclusion

In the Mediterranean world around 47 BC, marriage and slavery were deeply involved in social structure and demographics. Roman monogamy strengthened political alliances, Greece maintained a patriarchal framework, and in Egypt, consanguineous marriage and polygamy symbolized royal power.

Slaves supported society through men performing heavy labor or specialized work and women performing housework and childbirth, with sexual exploitation also being common. From the perspective of population maintenance, the high birth rate of slaves compensated for the low birth rate of free people, ensuring a supply of labor. This complex interaction supported the economic and cultural prosperity of the Mediterranean world while highlighting structures of inequality and exploitation.