[LAW Document 72 Hours] The Pleasure of Savoring Humanity's 'Struggles and Joys'
■ What is History?
'What is History?' (Bunshun Shinsho) by Hidehiro Okada
[Content]
There are 'civilizations with history' and 'civilizations without history' in the world.
Japanese civilization was born with 'anti-China' as its identity.
The world is not developing in a fixed direction.
History is what gives a coherent narrative to a world that has no inherent path.
Concepts like 'nation,' 'people,' and 'national language' were born only in the last century or two... and so on. These are views and ways of grasping history that seem eccentric at first glance but actually strike sharply at the essence.
It is a grand and stimulating treatise that is truly eye-opening.
[Table of Contents]
Part 1: Civilizations with History, Civilizations without History (Definition of History, Examples of Civilizations without History, What is Chinese Civilization, What is Mediterranean Civilization, Circumstances of the Formation of Japanese Civilization)
Part 2: How Japanese History Was Created (How Should We Treat Myths, The Ancient and Modern 'Records of the Three Kingdoms: Account of the Wa', The Difficulty of Sharing History with Neighboring Countries)
Part 3: How to Grasp Modern History (Two Periodizations, Divisions within Ancient History, What is a Nation-State?)
[Problem Statement]
History is an endeavor to grasp the world in which humanity lives, transcending individual experience while following time and space.
The author, having defined it this way, lists four elements that constitute history: the concept of time moving forward as culture, technology to manage time such as calendars, techniques for recording with writing, and the sense that there is a causal relationship between one moment and another.
[Conclusion]
What is interesting is the idea of 'civilizations without history' and 'civilizations with history'.
In particular, he argues that Indian civilization originally had no history.
This is related to the Indian-specific philosophy of reincarnation (transmigration of the soul).
In the philosophy of 'samsara'—the cycle in which sentient beings of the 'six realms' such as heaven, asuras, and humans are reborn—the previous life is the cause, the current life is the result, and furthermore, the current life is the cause and the next life is the result. Therefore, simply recording events in the human world does not lead to a sufficient understanding of causal relationships.
Islam should also be a civilization without history, as every moment depends on God's creation, but it is said that it acquired history in order to counter the Mediterranean civilization, which is a civilization with history.
Mr. Okada attributes this to the idea that Islamic civilization considered history to be 'a powerful weapon to justify one's own position'.
Also, the idea that history has no meaning in American civilization, unlike in Europe, is a unique perspective, but the belief that one can become an 'American' through individual will and the Constitution is certainly unparalleled in world history.
As symbolized by Herodotus and Sima Qian, the fact that both Chinese civilization and Mediterranean civilization created their own histories is quite persuasive.
Moreover, it is a fact that distortions were born in each.
In China, because they followed the achievements of the 'Records of the Grand Historian' (Shiji) which emphasized the Mandate of Heaven, subsequent official histories made it their job to describe the rule of the emperor who received the Mandate of Heaven as it was, without recording changes in the world.
As a result, it led to the misunderstanding that there is no development in Chinese history.
On the other hand, the history of Mediterranean civilization brought about a historical view that equates Asia with the camp of Satan and Europe with the camp of the Lord, just as Herodotus's 'Histories' considered Europe and Asia as 'two forces in eternal opposition' and the 'Book of Revelation' emphasized the confrontation between the forces of Satan and the forces of the Lord.
This is not limited to the case of the Crusades.
The historical view that Europe conquering Asia is the realization of justice leaves traces in the works of Francis Fukuyama and Huntington at the end of the 20th century, and Mr. Okada's view is sharp in its own way.
The author asserts that history, even if it is a narrative or literature, is not a science.
This is because science can be experimented upon, but history only happens once.
In science, the differences between particles are ignored and laws are what matter, but in history, every single person is different.
Both the person writing and the person reading have their own individuality.
[ Comment ]
The idea that there is 'good history' and 'bad history' is also a unique expression by Mr. Okada.
Since history is not a court of law, it has nothing to do with value judgments based on morality or utility.
What historians aim for is 'truth,' specifically 'historical truth.'
It is correct to say that 'good history' is 'an explanation that can interpret all information from historical materials with a consistent theory.'
Since people and countries each have their own positions, 'good history' is not necessarily welcomed by others or other countries; this is a truly modern observation, and I look forward to the deepening of future discussions.
■ The Historical Consciousness of the Japanese
"The Historical Consciousness of the Japanese: From the Perspective of 'Seken' (The World)" (Iwanami Shinsho) by Kin'ya Abe
[ Content ]
While the Japanese are said to love history, the lack of historical consciousness is often questioned as well.
What is history to the Japanese?
The author, who has previously discussed Japanese society and the Japanese people from the perspective of 'seken' (the world), analyzes 'seken' historically while comparing it with Western society to consider what lies at the root of the Japanese people's historical perception.
[ Table of Contents ]Chapter 1: Ancient Intellectuals and 'Seken'Chapter 2: Ancient People and 'Seken'Chapter 3: Shinran, Who Denied MagicChapter 4: The Position of History in 'Seken'Chapter 5: The Secularization of 'Seken'Chapter 6: The Beginning of Modernity in the WestChapter 7: The Dual Structure of Modern Japan: Systems and Human RelationshipsChapter 8: Historical Consciousness and Historiography in the WestChapter 9: What is History to the Japanese?
[ Problem Statement ]'Seken,' a unique form of Japanese life.
Originally a Buddhist term, it is a translation of the Sanskrit 'loka,' meaning 'that which is destroyed and denied.'
The 'principles of gift and reciprocity,' 'order of seniority,' and 'common sense of time' are at work there.Also, magic is what permeates every corner of it.
For this 'seken,' 'history' is merely an external given, a sudden event.After the Meiji Restoration, Japan rushed toward modernization, but this 'seken' remains alive and well in the Japanese way of life and their sensibilities.
[ Conclusion ]
On the other hand, 'historical consciousness' is 'the consciousness of grasping social phenomena in terms of temporal moments and attempting to engage proactively with their progression.'
The author confirms this concept within many classics, starting with the 'Nihon Ryoiki'.
Meanwhile, the magic that was dominant in the 'sekken' (society/world) had already been rejected in the West by the 12th century.
This can be clearly seen in 'Dialogues on Miracles' (the author focuses on Shinran, who rejected magic in Japan).
Historical consciousness differs completely between Japan and the West.
In the West, there is a perspective that views history chronologically from the viewpoint of the individual.
On the other hand, in Japan, even at the academic level, history is not grasped in that way; it is only recognized externally as a circular movement.
The author illustrates this using Foucault's discovery of the interior, Heimpel's historiography, and Carr's historical consciousness.
The author concludes that there are two ways to face history directly while living within the 'sekken': 'the method of fighting the 'sekken'' and 'the method of objectifying the 'sekken' around oneself as history' (pp. 203-204).
What is the 'sekken' theory of Kin'ya Abe, a historian of Europe? In the early Meiji period in Japan, the terms 'society' and 'individual' were translated as 'shakai' and 'kojin' respectively.
Before that, in the mid-19th century, it was only used in the sense of 'a faction of a company,' and the concept closest to the current meaning of 'society' was the concept of 'sekken'.
However, he states that this 'sekken' is strictly different from the Western 'society' and is a concept unique to Japan.
Mr. Abe defines the concept of 'sekken' as follows.
The 'sekken' is a framework of human relationships surrounding a person, including all the people one has associated with in the present and past, as well as those one will associate with in the future.
Foreigners are not included here. The 'sekken' has principles of gift-giving and reciprocity, and is characterized by the order of seniority and a common sense of time (e.g., 'the other day,' 'in the future').
This 'sekken' also includes the dead and involves magical relationships, and each individual lives in close connection with the whole within the 'sekken'.
Mr. Abe seeks the difference between 'society' and 'sekken' in the sense of distance from the 'individual'.
In the West, the 'individual' was gradually formed after the 12th century (especially after the Renaissance).
In Japan, the Western concept of the 'individual' has permeated since the Meiji era, but it is said that the meaning of the 'individual' in the present is still decisively different from that of the West.
This is because Japan has the bond between people called 'sekken,' and that 'sekken' constrains the individual.
We must conform to this 'society' (seken) as much as possible, and we are expected to maintain a modest, inconspicuous attitude without expressing prominent opinions.
Companies, government offices, clubs, schools, and so on all make up this 'society,' and it is said that we live in constant fear of being excluded from this 'society' as a result of our own behavior.
Well, people who deviate from this 'society' are likely called 'misfits,' 'eccentrics,' 'oddballs,' 'outsiders,' and sometimes 'KY' (clueless).
When a scandal occurs at a company or government office, apologizing by saying 'I am sorry for causing trouble to society' (which apparently cannot be translated well into Western languages) is said to be synonymous with saying that although I am innocent, I apologize for causing trouble to the 'society I am involved with.'
As described above, unlike 'society' (shakai), 'seken' refers to a relatively narrow range of human relationships.
[ Comment ]
I thought that the statement 'society is something that values the atmosphere of a place' actually means 'seken is something that values the atmosphere of a place.'
In the end, whether it is good or bad, perhaps all Japanese people are 'desperately trying to read the air' for fear of being excluded from the 'society' to which they belong.
This is a natural sentiment.
However, as I mentioned earlier, shouldn't the 'society' side, which creates the atmosphere that 'excludes' such individuals, be a little more tolerant?
Well, 'society' might not be that easygoing...
■ Thinking about History Education
'Thinking about History Education: Can the Japanese Reclaim Their History?' (PHP Shinsho) by Takao Sakamoto
[ Content ]
In this book, the author presents important points for reconsidering postwar history education, focusing on modern and contemporary history, such as the significance of the symbolic emperor system and the difference between justice and normality in war.
A book that, as a historian, goes beyond mere factual research and sincerely tackles its social role.
[ Table of Contents ]
Introduction: The Core of the History Education Problem
Chapter 1: What is History Education?
Chapter 2: A Nation's History is the Story of its People
Chapter 3: Justice and Normality in History
Chapter 4: Ethical Perspectives and War Crimes
Chapter 5: Patriotism and the Continuity of History
Chapter 6: Reconsidering Modern History
Chapter 7: Japan's Contribution to World History
Final Chapter: On the Weight of History
[ Raising the Issue ]
A book that even the left wing admits is 'very difficult to refute.'
Since it is a Shinsho (paperback), it is easy for the general public to read.
The author properly discusses why history education is conducted in the first place.
Isn't this a perspective that is also lacking in current educational theory?
Even for those who disagree with the author, this is a question worth considering.
Furthermore, after pointing out that a unique, objective history cannot exist, it argues that history education is what forms national consciousness by sharing history.
With that as the axis, it discusses what should be taught in history.
This book is the posthumous work of Takao Sakamoto, a professor at Gakushuin University who sadly passed away in 2002, but even reading it again now, the significance of his high-quality thinking on history and other subjects has not faded at all.
Therefore, when considering recent issues such as history textbooks and the revision of the Imperial House Law, the perspective that the author speaks of—'a nation's history is the story of its people'—actually becomes an important point.
[ Conclusion ]
This is because, in the first place, 'history is always interpreted history,' and 'a collection of facts does not simply constitute history' (Keishi Saeki, 'Who is a Citizen'?').
By the way, when it comes to 'stories,' some might point out that they are 'fiction.'
However, in this world, there is no country that does not color the history of its nation (people) with 'fiction,' and 'the nation is born first and foremost as a product of the imagination' (José Ortega y Gasset, 'The Revolt of the Masses').
Each country, naturally, has its own unique history.
Therefore, it is absolutely impossible to create a history textbook shared with other countries, and the issue of the Imperial family should also be discussed from this perspective.
What is noteworthy about what I learned from this book is not the problem of history education, but rather how many wrong assumptions we have without thinking deeply.
For example, there is the tendency to view Anne, the protagonist of 'The Diary of a Young Girl,' as a victim of war, but even if a ceasefire had been achieved before her death at a stage when German control had reached neighboring countries, it is unlikely that she would have been liberated from the concentration camp.
[ Comment ]
This is because the extermination of the Jews was not part of the war effort, but a political objective of the Nazis.
She was killed by the plan to exterminate the Jews, and she is not a war victim.
When we dispel such assumptions that turn 'The Diary of a Young Girl' into an anti-war work, we can see a history different from what we have seen before.
In that respect, this book is very helpful.
■ A New Society
'A New Society' (Iwanami Shinsho) by E.H. Carr, translated by Ikutaro Shimizu
[ Content ]
Carr argues that we are now standing at the entrance to a new society.
The new society is, needless to say, a socialist society.
This society is inevitable for those who believe in the progress of history.
It vividly captures all issues, such as politics, economy, and thought that support this new society, within the flow of history, and provides accurate criticism and prospects for them.
[ Table of Contents ]
1. Threatened Democracy
2. New Political Science in a New World
3. History is Continuous
4. Conclusion
[ Problem Statement ]
What is history?
This is an ambitious work by Carr, who attempted to answer a question that is both fundamental and the most difficult to answer.
Above all, he pointed out the importance of 'interpretation' in history and denied the 'objectivity of history' that was believed in by traditional positivist historiography.
There is Carr's most famous saying, 'History is an unending dialogue between the present and the past' (p. 40), but I believe his most important discourse is 'consciousness of the future' (p. 160) on the final page of Chapter 4.
[ Conclusion ]
History, religion, and ethnicity.
I am surely not the only one who finds these difficult to handle, as they all harbor a danger of touching the heartstrings with bare hands.
Especially when I see the word 'history,' I feel that what should be separated—if not entirely—is mixed together, such as 'facts,' 'associated emotions,' and 'ways of viewing the record called history.'
This book is one that encourages a reconsideration of what I have indicated, namely the 'ways of viewing the record called history,' or in other words, 'philosophy of history.'
The author, E. H. Carr, was a fellow at Trinity College when this work was published in 1962.
This work was based on a series of lectures given in Cambridge in 1961; it is very easy to read, the issues are clear, and the original notes are thorough.
The author's stance (perspective) is consistently calm and moderate, yet rigorous.
This is reflected in his assertion: 'Before you study the history, study the historian,' and to do that, 'study the historian's historical and social environment.'
In other words, he is saying to be aware that history is a 'social product' (all three points from p. 61 of the same book) delivered through the historian, and he discusses the six items listed in the table of contents while being conscious of this very point.
When it comes to the philosophy of history, under the banner of 'historical views' seen in thinkers like Hegel, one sometimes notices a forceful imposition of ideas, but I felt that this book is an excellent work with its feet firmly on the ground, even if one assumes such things were revealed later.
Therefore, I would like to recommend it.
Furthermore, the contemporary stance is neatly summarized in 'Iwanami Koza: World History, Volume 1,' which is also a useful reference.
[ Comment ]
Additionally, the progressive view of history that underlies Carr's work, as well as his views on 'reason,' are discussed particularly in Chapters 5 and 6, and these sections alone are worth reading.
After reading this, I found myself harboring a deep, albeit vague, expectation for the future of scholarship.
Personally, I like the sentence stated on p. 7 of Chapter 1 the best, where he says that praising a historian for being accurate about facts is 'like praising an architect for using well-seasoned timber or well-mixed concrete.'
I still remember how the walls of Jericho in my mind came crashing down after reading this.
However, there are a few aspects that are a bit difficult to understand.
Therefore, I think that reading it alongside Carr's 'The New Society' will make his worldview much easier to grasp.
[A Must-Read!] 6 Recommended Masterpieces by Historian E.H. Carr
■ Paleolithic, Jomon, Yayoi, and Kofun Periods: The Genesis of the Archipelago
https://www.suntory.co.jp/sfnd/prize_ssah/detail/2008sr2.html
■ Iwanami Lecture Series: World History Vol. 1 - What is World History?
■ A History of the World in 100 Objects
The 'Lewis Chessmen' that appear in the first Hollywood 'Harry Potter' film.
The 'Standard of Ur,' which is also introduced in Japanese textbooks.
The British Museum in London boasts a collection that covers every region and era of the world as a hall of human cultural heritage.
This book is an attempt to decipher the history of human creation from 2 million years ago to the present day through 100 works selected from over 7 million items in the collection.
'A History of the World in 100 Objects (1)' (Chikuma Sensho) by Neil MacGregor, translated by Erika Togo
'A History of the World in 100 Objects (2)' (Chikuma Sensho) by Neil MacGregor, translated by Erika Togo
'A History of the World in 100 Objects (3)' (Chikuma Sensho) by Neil MacGregor, translated by Erika Togo
The selected items range from seemingly casual daily necessities to artistic masterpieces that appear in textbooks.
The 100 'objects' speak to us of various 'fragments of history,' such as the daily lives of the people who held them, the objects of their faith, and the turbulent social backgrounds of their times.
Among them, there will surely be objects brought from regions and cultures you are seeing for the first time.
On the other hand, you will surely be surprised to find unexpected discoveries even in things left behind by cultures familiar to us.
Please enjoy a world tour that transcends time and space around the globe through this book.