Explaining 'The Story of Human Language' in a Way Even Elementary School Students Can Understand (Book)

The Story of Human Language

Author: John McWhorter, The Great Courses

You all use language every day as if it were the most natural thing in the world. You chat with friends at school, listen to your teachers, and read books. But have you ever stopped and wondered, 'What exactly is language?'

In fact, language is the greatest invention humans have ever created, and it is also a mysterious ability built into our bodies. Let's dig deep into the secrets of language based on Professor John McWhorter's lecture, 'The Story of Human Language'.

This is an adventure to discover the true nature of language, something not found in textbooks.

Chapter 1: The Decisive Difference Between Animals and Humans

First, did you know that animals other than humans also communicate? Honeybees tell their companions where nectar is through dance, and dogs bark to convey their feelings.

However, that is a little different from 'language.' Honeybees can talk about 'where the nectar is,' but they cannot have conversations like 'The weather was nice yesterday, wasn't it?' or 'If I were a bird.' Animal communication is limited to 'what is here and now.'

In contrast, human language is infinite. We can talk about 'yesterday,' '100 years from now,' and even 'imaginary stories that don't exist.' In technical terms, this is called 'displacement.' Also, we can combine a limited number of words to create new sentences that no one has ever said before.

This is called 'productivity.' Even if you teach sign language to chimpanzees, they might be able to say they want a banana, but they won't make small talk like 'It's nice weather today, isn't it?' Being able to freely depict the world using language is a privilege unique to humans.

Chapter 2: Is Language Built Into the Brain?

So, why is it that only humans can speak? Famous linguist Noam Chomsky believed that 'humans are born with a program in their brains for speaking language.'

This is called 'Universal Grammar.'

As proof, any child in the world can naturally learn a language without being taught, just by listening to the adults around them. Moreover, even though the language adults speak is not perfect—with slips of the tongue and interruptions—children discover the correct rules from it and become able to speak sentences they have never heard before.

This is thought to be because, just like 'imprinting' where a duckling follows its parent immediately after birth, humans are equipped with a special period and ability for learning language.

Chapter 3: Language Changes Like a Living Thing

Language does not stay the same forever. It is constantly changing its form, just like a living thing, or perhaps like a 'lava lamp' (a lamp where colored liquid moves around).

For example, sound changes. In old English, sounds were used that are completely different from the sounds we use today. Just as the Latin word 'pater' changed into the English word 'father' over a long period of time, sounds change according to fixed laws.

This is called things like 'Grimm's Law.'

The meanings of words also change. The English word 'silly' now means 'foolish,' but long ago it meant 'blessed.' From there, it shifted over a long time through 'innocent' to 'weak' to 'foolish.' Also, 'meat' now refers to 'flesh,' but it used to refer to 'food in general.'

Furthermore, grammar also changes. English now uses the order (SVO) 'I eat apples,' but long ago, it sometimes used the order 'I apples eat,' like in Japanese.

Language is never complete; it is always in the middle of changing. The language we use now will likely be seen as 'old-fashioned' by people 1,000 years from now.

Chapter 4: The Truth About Dialects and Standard Language

Do you think that 'standard language is correct, and dialects are broken language'? Actually, from a linguistic perspective, that is incorrect. Every dialect is a respectable language with its own proper rules.

Standard language is merely a dialect that happened to be spoken in the center of the country (such as the capital) and was decided to be 'this is the official language.'

There is a famous saying: 'A language is a dialect with an army and navy.' In other words, a dialect from a region that held power simply became known as the standard language; there is no superiority or inferiority as a language.

For example, African American Vernacular English (Black English) is often said to have 'incorrect grammar,' but this is also a mistake. They have their own strict rules.

For example, there is a special usage of the verb 'be' that means 'always doing so.' This is a highly advanced expressive function not found in standard English. Dialects are not 'broken language,' but rather 'languages with different possibilities' that have undergone their own unique evolution.

Chapter 5: A Mixed Juice of Languages

There are about 6,000 languages in the world, and they influence each other. English, in particular, is the champion of 'mixing.' It is said that 99% of English words are actually borrowed from other languages.

A long time ago, Vikings came to the island of Britain. From their language (Old Norse), basic words like 'sky,' 'leg,' and 'take' entered English. Later, the French-speaking Normans conquered England.

Because of this, a massive number of words related to law, politics, and cooking (such as 'beef' and 'pork') entered from French.

Why do we call the animal a 'cow,' but call the meat we eat 'beef'? It is because the English farmers who raised the cows called them 'cow,' while the ruling-class French people who cooked and ate the meat called it 'boeuf'.

English is a hybrid language, like a building with additions made of French and Latin built on top of a Germanic foundation.

Chapter 6: When New Languages Are Born

The ultimate form of language mixing is 'pidgin' and 'creole.' When people who speak different languages come into contact and absolutely must communicate (for example, through trade or, in a sad part of history, on slave plantations), a makeshift language called 'pidgin' is born. Pidgin has simple grammar and a small vocabulary; it is a stopgap language.

However, something surprising happens. When children are born to adults who speak pidgin, those children grow up with pidgin as their native language. The children then transform their parents' simple pidgin into a complete language with complex and rich grammar. This is called a 'creole.'

In the examples of sign language in Hawaii and Nicaragua, we know that children created a proper language with rules out of scattered fragments of language in just one generation. This is powerful proof that humans are equipped with an 'instinct to create language.' When humans are placed in an environment without a proper language, they create one for themselves.

Chapter 7: Complex Languages, Simple Languages

We tend to think that the languages of major powers like English or Chinese are 'advanced, complex languages,' but the reality is the opposite. The languages with the most complex grammar in the world are usually spoken by small tribes living deep in the jungle or in the mountains.

For example, in the 'Tuyuca' language of the Amazon, when you say something, you must attach the source of your information to the end of the sentence. Even just to say 'he is cutting a tree,' you must choose from five different endings depending on the source of the information, such as 'I saw it,' 'I heard the sound,' 'I heard it from someone,' or 'I inferred it from evidence.' This is called 'evidentiality.'

Conversely, languages like English, Chinese, and Indonesian have relatively simple structures because many foreigners learned them as adults throughout history. Since adults are not as good at learning languages perfectly as children are, they omit difficult pronunciations and detailed grammatical rules.

This is sometimes called the 'Roto-Rooter effect.' In other words, the more a 'major language' is learned by many people, the more its structure is often simplified.

Chapter 8: Vanishing Languages

Right now, there are about 6,000 languages on Earth, but many of them are on the verge of extinction. It is said that a language disappears at a pace of one every two weeks.

Why do languages disappear? It is because there are no children left to speak them. When parents do not teach their children their own language and only speak the major languages used in schools and on television (such as English or Spanish), that language is not passed on to the next generation.

Once a language is cut off, it cannot be restored like a dinosaur fossil unless there are recordings or records. The disappearance of a language means that the unique culture, worldview, history, and wisdom contained within that language also disappear.

For example, the languages of indigenous people in Alaska might contain very detailed knowledge about nature. Losing them is the same as losing the property of all humanity.

Currently, there are movements to revive languages that once neared extinction, such as Irish and Hawaiian, but it is a very difficult challenge to fully reclaim a lost language for daily conversation.

Chapter 9: The 'Artificial' Nature of Writing

Finally, let's touch on the difference between 'written language' and 'spoken language.' For most of human history, language was something 'spoken.' If we compare human history to 24 hours, the invention of writing happened just after 11:00 PM.

Writing is very convenient, but it slightly distorts the true nature of language. When we see writing, we assume that language is something 'fixed.' But true language, like spoken language, is much freer, constantly changing, and loose.

The 'correct grammar' and 'written language' we learn in school are, so to speak, language wearing 'formal attire.' The language we use when relaxing at home (spoken language) is the true face of language.

Conclusion: Into the Sea of Language

What becomes clear from Professor John McWhorter's lectures is that language is not merely a 'tool.' It is like a dynamic living organism, born from the mysterious abilities of the human brain, mixed and changed throughout history, sometimes disappearing, and sometimes being born anew.

Packed into every word we casually utter are genes inherited from distant ancestors in Africa, memories of wars and exchanges that occurred over thousands of years of history, and the passion that humans simply cannot help but convey.

Take the English word 'She,' for example; there is a historical mystery hidden in why its form is different from 'he.' Also, the reason why the past tense of 'fall' is 'fell' is because the pronunciation habits of ancient times remain like fossils.

Learning a language is not about memorizing a vocabulary book. It is about understanding the mechanisms of the human heart and tracing the long journey that humanity has walked.

If you ever have the opportunity to learn a new language, or when you think about your own dialect or Japanese, try to think about the magnificent story that spreads out behind it. There, 6,000 different 'ways of seeing the world' exist.

★Appendix★ Phonetic Considerations

What is Human Language—An Overview from the Perspectives of Origin, Mechanism, and Change

Abstract

In this paper, we redefine human language not as a 'collection of words,' but as a 'mechanism that possesses grammar, constructs meaning, and acts upon the world.' First, through comparison with animal communication, we organize the characteristics of human language (the power to speak about things that are absent, the power to combine infinitely, the power to spontaneously initiate conversation, etc.). Next, regarding the origin of language, we examine when language ability was established in human history, while considering both the theory of sudden leaps and the theory of gradual development. Furthermore, we confirm the idea that language is supported by innate mechanisms (the concept of Universal Grammar) as well as counterarguments to it, and present a blueprint that 'it is to some extent biological and at the same time cultural' as a reasonable landing point. Finally, focusing on the fact that language is a constantly changing entity, we explain the process by which sound changes (assimilation, weakening of consonants and vowels, the Great Vowel Shift, etc.) reshape language into different forms. Through the above, we aim to understand language not as a fixed norm, but as a human ability that continues to change.

Keywords

Language, grammar, evolution, innateness, Universal Grammar, language change, sound change, written and spoken language

1. Introduction

When people think of language, many think of 'knowing words' or 'writing sentences correctly.' However, at the center of language is not the words themselves, but the grammar that combines words to create meaning. For example, even if you memorize thousands of words in a language, you need to use grammar to express fine nuances or how to position events (whether it was a coincidence, a guess, or a plan). Language is both a 'tool for conveying what you want to say' and a 'mechanism for shaping how you perceive things.' The purpose of this paper is to organize the representative issues surrounding language as a whole, while avoiding difficult phrasing. There are three focuses. First, how is human language different from animal communication? Second, how was human language ability established? Third, why and how does language continue to change?

2. Differences Between Animal Communication and Human Language

Animals also exchange information with each other. For example, it is known that bees can convey the direction and distance of food to their companions through specific movements. This is a highly advanced form of communication, but the content that can be conveyed is limited, and bees cannot expand on topics such as 'something happened yesterday' or 'what should we do if it rains?' Regarding apes, research has long been conducted to attempt communication through vocalization or sign-like methods. There have been certain results, and examples of combining multiple symbols to point to objects have been reported. However, there are also limits to this. It is pointed out that there are many misunderstandings, it is doubtful whether they strictly understand the differences in word order, and above all, they rarely 'start a conversation on their own.'

In explaining this difference, a famous approach is to categorize the characteristics of human language. Here, we list three particularly important points.

First is the 'power to speak about things that are distant.' Humans can talk about events that are not in front of them. We can share past experiences, future plans, hypothetical stories, and imaginary tales right here and now. This is an ability that goes beyond the mere exchange of signals.Second is 'productivity (the infinity of combinations).' We can create countless new sentences from limited elements. Through grammar, expressions expand not only to 'I want a banana,' but also to 'why do I want a banana,' 'will I eat it later,' and 'who will eat how much.'Third is 'spontaneity.' Humans start talking even without being prompted. We express our thoughts, chat, and change how we say things based on the other person's expected reaction. Language plays a role not only in problem-solving but also in creating human relationships themselves.

To summarize the above, human language can be said to be not a 'mechanism for sending specific information,' but a 'mechanism for freely assembling and sharing what we think, across time and space.'

3. When and How Did Language Begin?

When thinking about the origin of language, a view often discussed is that 'there was a sudden leap at a certain time.' For example, there is the idea that humans suddenly acquired their current intellectual abilities at a time when artistic expression and the diversification of tools became prominent. While it is easy for catchy dates to take on a life of their own, the intuition that 'acceleration is visible at a certain time' is certainly persuasive. On the other hand, in recent years, the view that emphasizes 'gradual accumulation' has also become stronger. Human history is long, and as the discovery of fossils and artifacts increases, it becomes easier to find complex behaviors from earlier periods. As a result, it is considered highly likely that language did not appear as a finished product one day, but had a long preparation period including preliminary stages. What is important in this issue is not to define language solely by 'the ability to produce sound.' There is a theory that differences in vocal organs are the key to language, but being able to produce sound and being able to construct meaning using grammar are separate issues. Considering that children master language while growing, an explanation that they can speak simply because their organs are ready is insufficient. Ultimately, it is natural to think that the establishment of language involved not only physical conditions but also cognitive mechanisms, social cooperation, and learning frameworks in a complex way. Language can be seen as having been refined as a 'tool for sharing' beyond mere communication as humans lived in groups.

4. Is Language Innate or Learned?
To what extent language ability is innate has been a point of debate in linguistics for a long time. A representative idea of the innateness theory is that 'the human brain has a foundation for learning language.' The following points are often cited as evidence. First, children acquire language in a short period of time. Moreover, they acquire grammar from surrounding conversations without being taught systematically. Second, there is an age effect on learning, and the younger one is, the easier it tends to be to acquire it naturally. Furthermore, there are cases where only grammar is severely impaired due to brain damage, or conversely, where meaning comprehension collapses while grammar is preserved, suggesting the possibility that language is supported by mechanisms that are differentiated to some extent within the brain. Also, there are cases where language difficulties are concentrated in specific families, and research discussing the relationship with genes. These are parts that are easier to explain by thinking that 'there is a biological foundation' rather than thinking that 'language consists only of culture.' However, there are also counterarguments to the innateness theory. The fact that children acquire it quickly can sometimes be seen in other skills besides language, so one should be cautious about concluding that 'there is a dedicated mechanism' based on speed alone. There is also the point that the language environment that children are actually exposed to is not as chaotic as imagined, and contains sufficient clues for learning. A realistic organization here is not to make 'innate or learned' an either-or choice. It is reasonable to acknowledge both sides: that humans have a preparation to learn language, but that actual language is concretely acquired within society. Language exists in the domain where biology and culture connect.

5. Why Do Languages Change? — Focusing on Sound Changes

Language is not a fixed set of rules; it is constantly changing. Changes occur not only in vocabulary but also in meaning, word order, and sound. Sound changes arise from the accumulation of everyday speech habits. In many cases, it relates to ease of speaking—that is, reducing the burden on mouth movements. Here, I will present three representative types of change.

First is 'assimilation.' This is a phenomenon where adjacent sounds become similar to each other. When speech continues, it is easier to move the mouth to a similar shape rather than making large shifts in mouth position. These small adjustments accumulate, and the pronunciation of one era shifts into a different form.
Second is 'consonant weakening and loss.' Sometimes a sound becomes weaker and eventually disappears. Consonants provide clear boundaries when pronounced distinctly, but in spoken language, smoothness is prioritized, making them prone to weakening. As a result, the past form and the current form can look very different.
Third is 'vowel weakening and shifting.' Vowel changes are easier to understand when viewed in terms of their positional relationships within the mouth. When a vowel gradually moves into a different area, the entire vowel system of a language can be reorganized. The Great Vowel Shift known in the history of English is a classic example; the pronunciation changed, but the spelling lagged behind in its old state, widening the gap between spelling and pronunciation.

Looking at these changes, some people feel that 'language is breaking down.' However, in reality, it is precisely because of these changes that language continues to be adjusted into forms that are easier to use across generations. Change is not deterioration, but rather a reorganization resulting from usage.

6. The Relationship Between Spoken and Written Language

One factor that makes understanding language difficult is our tendency to view written language as the 'correct language.' Written language can be revised and can maintain complex structures for a long time. On the other hand, because spoken language is generated on the spot, it tends to consist of short segments and frequent repetitions.
This difference does not mean that spoken language is immature. Rather, spoken language works efficiently by being tied to the listener's facial expressions, the situation, and the context. It can be said that written language has a thicker structure so that meaning can be conveyed even in situations where context is not easily shared.
The important point is that written language is not language itself, but merely one form of expression of language. Many languages have been used for long periods without having a writing system. In other words, the essence of language lies in 'speaking,' and writing is a technology that developed later. From this perspective, it becomes easier to reconsider the attitude of treating language change as an 'error'.

7. Conclusion

In this paper, I have organized the main points concerning human language into three areas: origin, mechanism, and change. While human language has continuity with animal communication, it differs qualitatively in its ability to talk about absent things, combine elements infinitely, and spontaneously construct conversations. The emergence of language likely involved both long accumulation and acceleration, rather than just a sudden leap, and is thought to have involved a complex interplay of body, cognition, and society. Language ability is supported to some extent by a biological foundation, while being learned in concrete forms within society. Furthermore, language is not a fixed object but is constantly being reorganized through diverse processes, starting with sound changes.
Rather than judging language by 'correctness,' I believe the shortcut to understanding language is to view it as 'the ability for humans to change its form through continued use.'