A History of Fake News, Conspiracy Theories, Pseudoscience, and Hoaxes

The history of fake news, conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, and more

• Around the 6th century BC: Astrology develops in ancient Mesopotamia, becoming deeply intertwined with astronomy and merging with the worldview of that era.

• Around the 3rd century BC: Alchemy develops in Egypt, Greece, China, and elsewhere. It becomes part of early scientific inquiry but is eventually classified as pseudoscience.

• 17th century:

• 1620: Francis Bacon advocates for the importance of scientific thinking and points out human biases and fallacies known as Idola.

• 18th century:

• 1717: The modern Freemasons form a Grand Lodge in London. Based on Enlightenment ideals, they spread to various countries as a fraternal organization promoting "liberty, equality, fraternity, tolerance, and humanity."

• French Revolution period (after 1789): Clergymen of the old regime, such as Abbé Barruel, claim that "the masterminds of the revolution are the Freemasons and the Illuminati," and Freemason conspiracy theories spread throughout Europe.

• 19th century:

• 1843: French physiologist François Magendie calls phrenology a "modern pseudoscience," using the term "pseudoscience" for the first time.

• 1844: The term "pseudo-science" is used for the first time in an article in the Northern Journal of Medicine, issue 387, and begins to spread widely.

• Late 19th century: The "Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory" is formed, and hoaxes are circulated claiming that Freemasons are conspiring with Jews to achieve world domination.

• 20th Century:

• Early 20th Century: The forgery known as "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" is created, depicting Freemasons as agents of a Jewish secret government, and anti-Semitic/anti-Masonic conspiracy theories are systematized.

• 1923: The Great Kanto Earthquake occurs. Amidst the breakdown of information networks and deteriorating public order, hoaxes such as "foreigners are setting fires" spread, leading to massacres. This is a classic example of a situation where the "importance × ambiguity" factor, as described in Allport and Postman's "Law of Rumor," is high.

• 1930s–1940s: Nazi Germany deploys propaganda stating that "Jews and Freemasons are the root cause of global chaos," leading to the persecution of Freemasons, with many being arrested and imprisoned. This is a prime example of conspiracy theories being abused as a basis for political oppression.

• 1942: Robert K. Merton proposes five "norms" of true science (originality, detachment, universality, skepticism, and openness).

• 1947: G.W. Allport and L. Postman publish the social psychology classic "The Psychology of Rumor." They propose the "basic law of rumor": "Amount of rumor propagation (R) = Importance of information (i) × Ambiguity of information (a)."

• 1952: Martin Gardner publishes his book "Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science," critically examining numerous pseudoscientific and paranormal claims.

• December 1973: The Toyokawa Shinkin Bank incident occurs. A hoax triggered by casual conversation among high school girls is exaggerated amidst social anxiety and the rumor mill, leading to a false rumor that "the credit union is going bankrupt," which develops into a bank run. The rumor spreads widely via radio.

• 1978: Paul Thagard proposes that pseudoscience can be distinguished from science by a long-term lack of progress and the failure of proponents to acknowledge or address problems.

• Late 1980s–1990s: Interest in supernatural phenomena and pseudoscience such as UFOs, the occult, psychic powers, and prophecies rises in Japan, leading to a "Tondemo-bon" (absurd book) boom.

• 1989: The Murders of Junko Furuta occur. Later, this is linked to the hoax surrounding the Smiley Kikuchi defamation case.

• 1990s: The "To-Gakkai" (The Society for the Study of Absurd Books) is formed and publishes the "World of Tondemo-bon" series. They point out the logical fallacies of pseudoscience and absurd claims with humor, advocating for the importance of information literacy.

• Around Spring 1999: The Smiley Kikuchi defamation case occurs. A hoax is spread on the internet bulletin board "2channel" claiming that Mr. Smiley Kikuchi was a perpetrator in the Murders of Junko Furuta, leading to long-term defamation and harassment. In 2009, it becomes the first case in Japan where the perpetrators are identified and prosecuted.

• Around 2000: "Negative ions" are featured on television and in magazines, becoming a trend, but are criticized for lacking scientific evidence.

• 21st Century:

• 2003: Tetsuji Iseda publishes "Pseudoscience and the Philosophy of Science." He proposes a Bayesian approach to the "demarcation problem."

• 2006: Tatsuya Mori publishes "Methods for Believing in the World" (later the first edition of "For You Living in a World Overflowing with Fake News"). He points out the fictionality, multifaceted nature, and bias of media, and advocates for the importance of media literacy.

• 2011: The Great East Japan Earthquake occurs. Hoaxes about "artificial earthquakes" and misinformation regarding power companies spread, causing confusion. Additionally, the concept of "conspirituality" is proposed.

• 2015: Hiroshi Yamamoto publishes "Enjoying Pseudoscience 10 Times More." Through a dialogue format, he criticizes pseudoscience such as blood-type personality diagnosis, game brain, and the Apollo moon landing conspiracy theory, while promoting scientific skepticism and information literacy.

• 2016:

• February 15: Mikito Ishikawa publishes "Why Does Pseudoscience Move Society? Humans Want to Be Deceived by Suspicious Theories." He analyzes how pseudoscience is rooted in human psychological vulnerabilities such as "narrative orientation" and "self-justification."

• April: The Kumamoto Earthquake occurs. Immediately after, a hoax claiming "a lion escaped from the zoo" spreads on social media, and the poster is arrested.

• US Presidential Election: The phenomenon of fake news dividing and confusing society gains global attention, and it is called the "first year of fake news."

• December 8: Journalist Michael V. LeVine points out that the website "Natural News" is spreading dangerous anti-pharmaceutical, anti-vaccine, and anti-GMO pseudoscience.

• 2017:

• Hiromichi Ugaya publishes "How to Identify Fake News." Based on his experience as a journalist, he presents practical know-how for spotting fake news, such as distinguishing between facts and opinions, evaluating information sources, and introducing multifaceted perspectives.

• October: QAnon appears on the anonymous image board "4chan" and begins posting what are known as "Q Drops." They begin spreading the conspiracy theory that President Trump is fighting a "deep state."

• 2018:

• Kazutoshi Sasahara publishes "Science of Fake News" (book). Using computational social science methods, he structurally elucidates the phenomenon where fake news "spreads further, deeper, faster, and more widely than the truth" through three mechanisms: cognitive bias, imbalances in the information environment, and cognitive limitations.

• The Minister of the Environment expresses a negative view on EM bacteria, stating, "I am not aware of any scientific verification that they are effective.".

• 2019: QAnon grows significantly, sharing the slogan "God wins" and transforming into an apocalyptic belief system.

• August: The Joban Expressway road rage incident occurs. Fake information claiming that "the flip-phone woman has been identified" spreads, and the real name of an unrelated woman is exposed.

• 2020:

• The COVID-19 pandemic occurs. The information environment evolves into a new stage called an "infodemic," where hoaxes and conspiracy theories related to public health spread explosively.

• The toilet paper and tissue paper shortage panic occurs. Triggered by hoaxes on social media, panic buying breaks out across Japan.

• QAnon uses the pandemic to spread messages such as "Save the Children," expanding its following.

• In the U.S. presidential election, QAnon plays a decisive role in the formation and spread of the "stolen election" myth.

• 2021:

• January 6: The U.S. Capitol attack is carried out by people who delusionally believe in QAnon. This event becomes a symbol of how conspiracy theories can influence real-world politics and escalate into violence.

• 2022:

• Masaki Hata publishes "Conspiracy Theories: The Mechanism Shaking Democracy." Based on empirical political science research, he presents the shocking finding that "the more interested in politics and the more well-intentioned people are who believe they are right, the more susceptible they are to conspiracy theories."

• 2023:

• March: The collection "Introduction to Conspirituality: Are Spiritual People More Likely to Believe in Conspiracy Theories?" was published by Sogensha. It provides a multifaceted analysis of "conspirituality," where conspiracy theories and spiritualism intersect.

• Satoshi Ohno published "Do Alternative Therapies Really 'Work'?" He examines the scientific evidence behind health foods and alternative medicine, advocating for the importance of health literacy.

• 2024:

• January 30: "The Storm Is Upon Us: How QAnon Became a Movement, Cult, and Conspiracy Theory of Everything" by Mike Rothschild, translated by Masayuki Karasutani and Amiko Nobori, was published by Keio University Press. It analyzes the depths of the QAnon phenomenon through psychological and sociological mechanisms.

• 2025:

• May: The essay collection "Social Division and Conspiracy Theories: Antidotes for an Era Flooded with False Information" was published by Bungeisha. It deciphers a world in the Trump era where "conspiracy theories have been weaponized and normalized," analyzing the link between social division and conspiracy theories through international case studies and thematic examinations.

Cast of Characters

Authors and Researchers

• Gordon Willard Allport: Social psychologist. In 1947, he co-authored "The Psychology of Rumor" with Leo Postman, proposing the "basic law of rumor": R = i × a (Rumor intensity = importance of the subject × ambiguity of the evidence).

• Leo Postman: Social psychologist. In 1947, he co-authored "The Psychology of Rumor" with G.W. Allport, proposing the "basic law of rumor."

• Martin Gardner: Writer and mathematician. In 1952, he published "Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science," in which he critically examined numerous pseudoscientific and paranormal claims.

• Hiroshi Yamamoto: Science fiction writer and first president of the "To Gakkai" (Anti-Pseudoscience Society). In 2015, he published "Enjoying Pseudoscience Ten Times More." He criticized pseudosciences such as blood-type personality diagnosis, "game brain," and the Apollo moon landing conspiracy theory, promoting scientific skepticism and information literacy.

• Tatsuya Mori: Documentary filmmaker, writer, and specially appointed professor at Meiji University. In 2006, he published "Methods for Believing in the World" (expanded new edition: "To You Who Live in a World Flooded with Fake News"). He unraveled the inherent "fictionality," "multifaceted nature," and "bias" of media, advocating for the importance of media literacy.

• Tetsuji Iseta: Philosopher of science and professor at Nagoya University. In 2003, he published "Pseudoscience and the Philosophy of Science," proposing a Bayesian approach to the "demarcation problem" between science and pseudoscience.

• Masato Ishikawa: Scholar of cognitive information theory and foundations of science, professor at Meiji University's School of Information and Communication. In 2016, he published "Why Pseudoscience Moves Society: Humans Want to Be Deceived by Suspicious Theories." He analyzed the psychological and social mechanisms by which pseudoscience spreads in society from the perspectives of human cognitive characteristics and evolutionary biology.

• Kazutoshi Sasahara: Computational social scientist and professor at the University of Tokyo. In 2018, he published "The Science of Fake News." Through big data analysis on social media, he elucidated the structure by which fake news "spreads further, deeper, faster, and more widely than the truth" through three mechanisms: cognitive bias, information environment bias, and cognitive limits.

• Hiromichi Ugaya: Freelance journalist. In 2017, he published "How to Spot Fake News." Based on his many years of experience as a reporter, he presented practical know-how for spotting fake news, such as distinguishing between facts and opinions, evaluating information sources, and expanding spatial and temporal perspectives.

• Takeo Samaki: Science education researcher and former professor at Hosei University. A leading expert in pseudoscience criticism. He authored the book "Pseudoscience Entering Schools," analyzing the dangers of pseudoscience prevalent in Japanese educational settings (such as "Messages from Water," EM bacteria, and "game brain") and the structure that exploits the good intentions of teachers.

• Joseph E. Uscinski: Professor of political science at the University of Miami. A leading expert in conspiracy theory research. In his book "Conspiracy Theories: A Primer," he academically defined conspiracy theories and analyzed the psychological and sociological factors of those who believe in them.

• Ryutaro Tsuji: Religious scholar. In his book 'Decoding World Conspiracy Theories: Jews, Freemasons, Illuminati,' he defines conspiracy theories as 'a very convenient filter for thinking that clearly explains everything in the world from a single perspective,' and examines the structure of their emergence and spread, as well as the psychological factors that lead people to seek them out. He has also contributed to the collections 'Introduction to Conspirituality' and 'Social Division and Conspiracy Theories.'

• Masaki Hata: Political scientist. In his book 'Conspiracy Theories: The Mechanism Shaking Democracy,' he presents findings based on empirical research that 'the more interested in politics and the more convinced of their own righteousness a well-intentioned person is, the more susceptible they are to conspiracy theories,' and analyzes the role of social media as well as conservative and liberal conspiracy theories.

• Mike Rothschild: Journalist and researcher of conspiracy theories and cult groups. In his book 'The Storm Is Upon Us: How QAnon Became a Movement, Cult, and Conspiracy Theory of Everything,' he provides a detailed analysis of the birth and spread of the QAnon phenomenon, the psychology of its believers, and the role of social media.

• Satoru Ohno: Doctor of Medicine, Professor at the Clinical Research Center of Shimane University Hospital. In his book 'Do Folk Remedies Really Work?', he verifies the scientific basis of health foods and alternative medicine, and advocates for the importance of EBM (Evidence-Based Medicine) and health literacy.

• Helmut Reinalter: Historian and Director of the Institute for Freemasonry Research. In his book 'History and Thought of Freemasonry: A Full-Scale Study of Criticism of Conspiracy Theories,' he provides a detailed analysis of the historical reality of Freemasonry and the weakness of the grounds for the conspiracy theories surrounding it.

• Shigeo Yokoyama: Researcher of English literature, history of thought, and occultism. He wrote 'What is Conspirituality?' for the collection 'Introduction to Conspirituality,' discussing its conceptual definition and historical origins.

• Munemasa Horie: Religious scholar. He wrote 'Shinji-tai Q, Conspiracy Theory Groups, and Conspirituality' for the collection 'Introduction to Conspirituality,' providing a case study analysis of Japanese conspiracy theory groups.

• Yoshiaki Sei: Freelance writer and researcher of social issues and media history. He wrote 'Bricolage of Religion and Conspiracy' for the collection 'Introduction to Conspirituality,' analyzing the structural similarities between religion and conspiracy theories.

• Setsuko Takeshita: Researcher of comparative cultural history, Catholic history, and the history of esotericism. She wrote 'How Do French and Anglo-Saxon Conspirituality Differ?' for the collection 'Introduction to Conspirituality,' discussing the differences in the reception of conspiracy theories based on cultural backgrounds.

• Hidehiko Kurita: Religious scholar. He participated in the closing dialogue of the collection 'Introduction to Conspirituality' titled 'Is Conspirituality New?' and conducted a comprehensive discussion on the historical and ideological positioning of conspiracy theories.

• Jun Amemiya: Writer and researcher of occult, spiritual, and fraudulent business practices. One of the co-authors of the collection 'Social Division and Conspiracy Theories.' He also wrote 'Words That Make You a Conspiracy Theorist.'

• Yohei Ueno: One of the co-authors of the collection 'Social Division and Conspiracy Theories.' He discussed pseudo-history in France and Africa.

• Masayuki Karasuya: One of the translators of 'The Storm Is Upon Us' at Keio University Press. He researches the relationship between politics and media. He is also one of the co-authors of the collection 'Social Division and Conspiracy Theories.'

• Tomoko Nagasako: One of the co-authors of the collection 'Social Division and Conspiracy Theories.' She is an expert in the field of information security and offers recommendations for improving individual information literacy and countering misinformation.

• Kotoko Madono: One of the co-authors of the collection 'Social Division and Conspiracy Theories.' She discussed social division in Turkey.

• Shunpei Mizuno: One of the co-authors of the collection 'Social Division and Conspiracy Theories.' He discussed the left-right conflict in South Korea.

• Shigeru Uchida: Philosopher. In his co-authored book with Kentaro Iwata, 'Living with Risk,' he philosophically discusses the relationship between the uncertainty of modern society and conspiracy theories, and proposes a 'hard-boiled' way of life that involves accepting absurd realities and dealing with them persistently.

• Kentaro Iwata: Physician. In his co-authored book with Shigeru Uchida, 'Living with Risk,' he philosophically discusses the relationship between the uncertainty of modern society and conspiracy theories, and proposes a 'hard-boiled' way of life that involves accepting absurd realities and dealing with them persistently.

• Kenichi Shimomura: Expert in information literacy and director of the Media Literacy Department at the Internet Media Association. He advocates for the 'So-U-Ka-Na' (Don't jump to conclusions, don't swallow things whole, don't be biased, don't look only at the spotlight) approach to information judgment.

Historical Figures and Organizations

• Abbé Barruel: A clergyman during the French Revolution. He proposed a conspiracy theory that the Freemasons and the Illuminati were the masterminds behind the French Revolution, establishing the prototype for subsequent conspiracy theories.

• Frederick II (the Great): An enlightened monarch of the Kingdom of Prussia. He was a Freemason himself, and Freemasonry was relatively protected during his era.

• Thomas Kuhn: A philosopher of science. He proposed the concept of a "paradigm shift," arguing that scientific progress does not occur continuously but through discontinuous scientific revolutions.

• Imre Lakatos: A philosopher of science. He proposed the "research programmes" theory, arguing that scientific theories should not be evaluated in isolation but as research programs with a "hard core" protected by a protective belt, and should be judged by their progressiveness and problem-solving ability.

• Larry Laudan: A philosopher of science. He proposed the "research traditions" theory, arguing that the distinction between science and pseudoscience is a "pseudo-problem" and that focus should instead be placed on the more general distinction between reliable and unreliable knowledge.

• Karl Popper: A philosopher of science. He proposed "falsifiability" as the criterion for distinguishing between science and non-science. He cited Marxism, Freudian psychoanalysis, and astrology as examples of pseudoscience.

• Robert K. Merton: A sociologist. He identified five "norms" of true science (originality, disinterestedness, universalism, skepticism, and organized openness).

• Donald Trump: Former President of the United States. He became a symbol of the "weaponization" and "normalization" of conspiracy theories, as QAnon and "stolen election" conspiracy theories spread among his supporters, leading to events such as the 2021 U.S. Capitol attack.

• Q: An unidentified individual who appeared on the anonymous image board "4chan" in October 2017. They posted "Q Drops," which marked the beginning of QAnon, and spread the narrative of President Trump fighting against the "Deep State."

• Jake Angeli: Known as the "QAnon Shaman." He became a symbolic figure during the 2021 U.S. Capitol attack, which served as a catalyst for global attention on the concept of "conspirituality."

• Masaru Emoto: Proponent of "The Message from Water." He spread claims, considered to lack scientific basis, that "if you say kind words to water, beautiful crystals form, and if you say ugly words, the crystals collapse."

• Teruo Higa: Professor Emeritus at the University of the Ryukyus. Proponent of EM (Effective Microorganisms). He spread claims that EM bacteria are effective in agriculture, environmental purification, and even medicine and radiation detoxification, though these claims have been criticized for lacking scientific evidence.

• Sekai Kyusei Kyo (Church of World Messianity): A new religious movement considered to be related to the origins of EM bacteria.

• Yoichi Mukaiyama: Founder of TOSS (The Organization for the Standardization of Educational Technology), an organization aimed at spreading educational techniques. It has been pointed out that under his authority, lesson plans based on pseudoscience were justified as "educational technology."

• Akio Mori: Proponent of "Game Brain." He spread the theory that playing video games too much causes a state similar to dementia, but this has been criticized for lacking scientific evidence.

• Takashi Yanase: Manga artist and picture book author. Creator of "Anpanman." Jun Monoie cites the philosophy of Anpanman's "personal little story of being useful to someone" as a solution to save people trapped by hoaxes and conspiracy theories.

Organizations and Communities

• Unification Church: An organized "cult" that gained attention following the incident involving former Prime Minister Abe. Jun Monoie mentioned it as a contrast to point out the rise of a new, more familiar and invisible threat: the "Smartphone Cult," which differs from traditional organized cults.

• Galactic Federation of Light: An entity that appears in conspiracy theories depicting the battle between President Trump and the shadow government.

• To-Gakkai: A criticism group that studies "tondemo" (absurd) books dealing with the occult and similar topics. Hiroshi Yamamoto served as the first chairman, and the group published the "World of Tondemo Books" series, criticizing pseudoscience with humor.

• ASIOS: An organization that conducts skeptical investigations into paranormal phenomena, with Mikito Ishikawa serving as a founding member.

• EM Research Organization: An organization that registered the trademark for EM (Effective Microorganisms) and is involved in its promotion.

• TOSS (Teaching Organization of Social Studies): An organization aimed at disseminating educational techniques. It has been pointed out that Yoichi Mukoyama was treated as a cult-like figure, and under his authority, lesson plans based on pseudoscience were spread.

• QAnon: A conspiracy theory movement that began on the anonymous message board 4chan in 2017. It claims that President Trump is a 'warrior of light' fighting against the 'Deep State.' It triggered the 2021 United States Capitol attack.

• YamatoQ: One of the conspiracy theory groups in Japan. It was analyzed as a case study in the collection 'Introduction to Conspirituality'.

• Sanseito: A Japanese political party. It was featured in the collection 'Introduction to Conspirituality' as an example of a group gaining political influence within Japan.