[Multi-ethnic/Japan] Barbarian Categories (Ijin Zatsurui), Emishi, Aruburu-kami (Raging Gods), Matsurowanu-hito (People who do not submit), Ryukyuans ◆ Indigenous Peoples: Ainu, Nivkh (Nibu), Uilta (Orochons)

In ancient Japan, the term "Ijin Zatsurui" (miscellaneous barbarian categories) indicates how the Yamato court perceived people outside its sphere of control. This was a derogatory term for those who did not submit to the court, and it carried the implication of viewing people with different cultures as "foreign ethnic groups" or "barbarians." Specific examples include the Hayato in southern Kyushu and the Emishi who lived from the eastern to northern parts of Honshu.

The term "Ijin Zatsurui" appears in the articles of the "Buyakuryo" (Corvée Law), one of the ritsuryo (laws) enacted during the Nara period, and referred to people not under the control of the central government from the perspective of the court at that time.

Specifically, this included the Emishi in the Tohoku region and the Hayato in the Kyushu region, as well as the Amami people who lived in the Southwestern Islands.

As beings outside the court's control system, these people were treated differently from those who submitted to the court in terms of taxes and corvée (manual labor).

In summary, "Ijin Zatsurui" can be called a collective term used by the Ritsuryo state to refer to foreign ethnic groups or people who did not submit, who were outside their sphere of control during the process of advancing centralized rule.

1. The truth about the term "Emishi"

• Generally, "Emishi" is read as "Ezo" and is often thought to refer to the Ainu people of Hokkaido, but it was originally read as "Emishi" and referred to people living in the Tohoku region of ancient Japan.

• In kanji, it was written as "Yi" (barbarian), "Di" (barbarian), or "Moujin" (hairy people), and was also called "Fushu" (captives) or "Ifu" (barbarian captives).

• These designations were not self-proclaimed by the people of Tohoku, but were exonyms used by the Yamato court to disparage them.

2. Emishi as "people who do not submit"

• The Yamato court called people living in areas beyond its control "Aruburu-kami" (raging gods) or "Matsurowanu-hito" (people who do not submit), and regarded the Emishi as "Kegai no tami" (people beyond the reach of the king's civilizing influence).

• In the "Nihon Shoki," Emperor Keiko and Empress Saimei depict the Emishi as barbaric and uncivilized. This is thought to be because the court emphasized the Emishi as a different kind of existence in order to assert the legitimacy of its own culture and rule.

Asserting that the "history of the Emishi" is "another Japanese history" and an essential perspective for considering the formation of Japan.

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In ancient Japan, "Ijin Zatsurui" was a derogatory term used by the Yamato court to refer to people with different cultures. The "Hayato" of southern Kyushu and the "Emishi" of Tohoku are prime examples. The court viewed them as foreign ethnic groups and targets for conquest. The background to this was the expansion of control through the Ritsuryo system, and those who did not submit were called "barbarians." This designation was from the court's perspective and may differ from the consciousness of the target ethnic groups. "Foreign ethnic groups," "Court vs. Local," and "Cultural friction" are themes that still resonate today. 🔥

https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/56282/1/pt2ch2.pdf
"Ethnic" Dynamics of the Ancient Northern World from the Perspective of Documentary History -

Chapter 1: Organization and Issues of Previous Research

This chapter provides an overview of the history of research on the ancient northern world to date. In particular, it points out the problems with the idea of regarding the "Emishi" as a single "ethnic group" and states that it is necessary to grasp their dynamics from a more multifaceted perspective.

Chapter 2: Dynamics of "Ethnicity" from Documentary Sources

This is the core part of the paper. The author analyzes historical sources from the Yamato court side, such as the "Nihon Shoki" and "Shoku Nihongi," in detail and clarifies the following points.

• Formation of the 'Emishi' concept: The process by which the Yamato court framed the northern hunter-gatherers, who were beyond their control, as 'Emishi' and constructed that image.

• Classification of 'Emishi': The fact that the court distinguished Emishi into 'Nigie-emishi' (submissive) and 'Ara-emishi' (rebellious) based on their degree of obedience and applied different governance policies.

• Dynamics of the 'Fushu' (captives): The forced relocation of conquered Emishi as 'Fushu' into the Yamato court's sphere of control, and the subsequent transformation of their lives and culture.

1. Nomenclature and Etymology of Emishi

• Multiple names: It is shown that the pronunciation and kanji representation have changed over time and by region, such as 'Emishi,' 'Ebisu,' and 'Ezo.'

• Pejorative or honorific?: Various theories regarding the etymology are introduced, ranging from the idea that it was a term for bravery like 'hero of the countryside,' to theories of Ainu origin, or the view that the Yamato court borrowed concepts from China to use it as a derogatory term.

• 'Emishi' vs. 'Ezo': It is explained that the referents changed over time; while the ancient 'Emishi' referred to people in the eastern part of Honshu, 'Ezo' from the medieval period onwards mainly referred to the Ainu of Hokkaido.

2. Historical Transition

• Perception of the Yamato court: They were already recognized as 'strong soldiers' in the Kofun period, and the 'Nihon Shoki' describes them with barbaric imagery, such as 'living in caves in winter and in tree-top houses in summer.'

• Conquest and exchange: It is understood that from the Asuka to the Heian periods, the Yamato court built fortifications and conducted military conquests alongside trade-based exchanges. In particular, it is pointed out that the Emishi's superior archery and equestrian skills influenced the court side.

• The existence of 'Fushu': The history of conquered Emishi being relocated to various parts of Honshu as 'Fushu' is recorded.

• Establishment of control: It is explained that after the era of the Oshu Fujiwara clan, the Kamakura Shogunate finally extended its control to the northern tip of Tohoku, completing the 'Yamato-ization' and causing the concept of 'Emishi' to disappear from literature.

3. Theories on Ethnic Lineage

• Emishi-Ainu theory: A theory that considers the Emishi to be the same as, or a continuous group with, the Hokkaido Ainu people. Archaeological evidence and the existence of place names derived from the Ainu language are cited as grounds.

• Emishi-border people theory: A theory that considers the Emishi to be a group of **Wajin (specifically the ancient Izumo tribe)** distinct from the Ainu. The similarity between Tohoku dialects and Izumo dialects, as well as cultural commonalities such as rice cultivation and the use of horses, are cited as grounds.

• Intermediate Theory: A theory that the Emishi were a group possessing intermediate characteristics between the Ainu and the Wajin (Japanese). Based on the dual structure model, it introduces the view that they were the result of progressive interbreeding between the Jomon and Yayoi peoples.

• Emishi-Tungusic Theory: A theory that the Emishi were Tungusic horse-riding peoples who came from the continent. While the similarity between the Izumo dialect and Tungusic languages, as well as the Emishi's combat style, are cited as evidence, it is also noted that there is criticism that this is fanciful.

1. Overview and Definition of the Ainu People

• Indigenous People: With the "Ainu Policy Promotion Act" enacted in 2019, it was legally specified that they are "the indigenous people of the northern region of the Japanese archipelago, particularly Hokkaido."

• Habitation: They lived in a wide area spanning from Sakhalin in the north to the Kuril Islands, Hokkaido, and northern Honshu in the south. Currently, the majority live within Japan.

• Culture: Based on hunting and gathering, they possess a unique culture without a writing system. They have the Ainu language as their mother tongue, and are characterized by unique patterns and rituals (such as Iomante).

2. Historical Transition

• Origin: They are considered to be a lineage of the Jomon people who did not assimilate with the immigrant Yayoi people, and they belong to the "Jomon cultural sphere" along with the mainland Japanese and Ryukyuans.

• Relationship with the Emishi: There is still no established theory regarding the connection between the "Emishi" appearing in ancient documents and the Ainu. In historical studies, the Ainu from the medieval period onwards are distinguished by being called "Ezo."

• Relationship with the Wajin: From the medieval period onwards, trade with the Wajin (Yamato people) became active. Following trade monopolies by the Ando clan (Ezo Kanrei) and the Matsumae domain, and conflicts such as the Koshamain's War and Shakushain's Revolt, full-scale settlement and development by the Wajin began in the Meiji era.

• Assimilation Policy since the Meiji Era: While the Meiji government classified the Ainu as "commoners," it promoted assimilation policies such as banning traditional culture as "bad customs" and restricting hunting and fishing. This led to poverty and the decline of their unique culture and the Ainu language.

• Modern Trends: Following the 1997 Ainu Cultural Promotion Act, the 2008 Diet resolution, and the 2019 Ainu Policy Promotion Act, the restoration of rights as an indigenous people and the promotion of their culture are underway.

3. Ethnic Lineage and Genetic Origin

• Multiple Ancestries: Due to advancements in DNA research, the prevailing theory is that the Ainu followed a complex formation process involving three ancestral groups: Jomon people, Okhotsk people, and mainland Japanese.

• Genetic Haplogroups: Genetic research has revealed that the Ainu possess a high frequency of both haplogroups considered to be derived from the Jomon people (N9b and M7a) and haplogroups commonly found in North Asian populations (Y and G).

• Dual Structure Model: Research has complemented the model that the modern Ainu population was formed through the interbreeding of the Jomon people, as the base population, with northern groups that arrived later.

4. Contemporary Issues and Debates

• Population and Identity: While the exact population is unknown, intermarriage with Wajin (ethnic Japanese) has progressed, and the number of people with both parents being Ainu is decreasing. Additionally, there is the issue of "who is Ainu," and an increasing number of people are not conscious of their roots.

• Discrimination and Prejudice: Although past experiences of discrimination are on a downward trend, public opinion polls indicate that there are differences in perception across generations, as well as a gap in awareness between Ainu and non-Ainu people.

• Grave Robbing and Repatriation of Remains: The grave robbing and removal of Ainu remains that occurred after the Meiji era have been viewed as a problem, and in recent years, there has been a movement to return remains from universities and overseas organizations.

• Political Debate: It is noted that there have been instances of statements by some politicians denying the existence of the Ainu people, as well as debates surrounding the criteria for Ainu recognition.

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To state the conclusion first, the view that people called "Japanese" were a single ethnic group is denied from the perspectives of modern history, archaeology, and genetics. Throughout history, people with diverse roots have lived, interacted, and repeatedly interbred on the Japanese archipelago and its surrounding islands.

The following is an explanation of the major ethnic groups that existed on the Japanese archipelago and their dynamics.

1. Jomon People (From the Paleolithic to the Jomon Period)

• Origins and Characteristics: These were the first people to settle on the Japanese archipelago. In genetic research, they are considered to belong to the "Paleo-Mongoloids" who traveled south from Southeast Asia and reached the archipelago. They are said to have features such as deep-set eyes and thick body hair.

• Culture: They built the Jomon culture, which relied on hunting, gathering, and fishing. They used earthenware and stone tools and formed extensive settlements throughout the country.

2. Migrant Yayoi People (Yayoi Period)

• Origins and Characteristics: Large-scale migration from the continent (especially the Korean Peninsula and southern China) began around the 3rd century BC. They belong to the "Neo-Mongoloids" and are said to have features such as flat faces and thin body hair.

• Culture: They brought new cultures and technologies, such as rice cultivation and metalware (iron and bronze tools), to the Japanese archipelago. This significantly transformed society on the Japanese archipelago, leading to the establishment of the agriculture-based Yayoi culture.

• Interbreeding: The immigrant Yayoi people repeatedly interbred with the Jomon people who lived on the archipelago. The degree of this interbreeding varied by region and remains as genetic diversity even today. Generally, it is considered that the genetic composition of immigrant Yayoi people is high in western Japan, especially in the Kinki region, while the genetic characteristics of the Jomon people remain strong in Okinawa and the Tohoku region.

3. Immigrants of the Kofun Period

• Origins and Characteristics: Following the Yayoi period, many people migrated from the Korean Peninsula and China during the Kofun period (4th to 7th centuries). They brought culture essential to the formation of a ritsuryo state, such as writing (kanji), Buddhism, advanced civil engineering, and textile technology.

• Role: As "naturalized citizens" (kikajin), they were highly valued as bureaucrats and technicians for the Yamato court. Their cultural and technical contributions were indispensable to the establishment of Japan's ritsuryo system and the development of its culture.

4. Ethnic Diversity in the Ancient Japanese Archipelago

In the ancient Japanese archipelago, there was no unified ethnic concept of "Wajin" (Japanese people) yet, and diverse groups such as the following coexisted.

• Emishi: A group living mainly in the eastern part of Honshu to the Tohoku region. They resisted the rule of the Yamato court and were considered to have their own unique culture and language. Documentary historical sources show that they were recognized as "those who do not submit" (matsurowanu-mono) who rejected the court's rule, and were perceived as beings different from the Wajin.

• Hayato: A group living in southern Kyushu. Like the Emishi, they had a history of resisting the court's rule and possessed their own unique culture and language.

• Kumaso: A group living in southern Kyushu.

• Okhotsk Culture People: People who lived in northern Hokkaido and the Kuril Islands from around the 5th century. They focused on hunting and fishing and built a unique culture. Genetic research suggests that they had a significant influence on the formation of the Ainu people.

Summary: The "Japanese" Formed by Multiple Ethnicities

The concept of "Japanese people" does not refer to a specific single ethnic group, but was formed from multiple groups that migrated to the Japanese archipelago throughout history and repeatedly interbred.

• Jomon people as the base layer, with the immigrant Yayoi people causing large-scale interbreeding, and the addition of immigrants of the Kofun period formed the genetic and cultural foundation of modern Japanese people.

• Furthermore, in various parts of the Japanese archipelago, there are people such as the Ainu people and the **Ryukyu people (Okinawans)**, who have more strongly inherited the genetic characteristics of the Jomon people and have developed their own unique cultures and languages.

The discourse of a "homogeneous nation" is a historical and political concept emphasized for the purpose of national integration since the Meiji era, and is considered to have little academic basis. Recognizing that modern Japan is a society where people with diverse roots coexist is a more accurate understanding.

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In Karafuto (Sakhalin, currently Sakhalin Oblast, Russian Federation) under Japanese rule, indigenous peoples such as the Ainu, Nivkh, and **Uilta (Orok)** lived. The Ainu people in particular, as "Karafuto Ainu (Sakhalin Ainu)," possessed their own unique culture and traditions, characterized by customs such as the tonkori (a stringed instrument) and mummy burials.

• Classification under Japanese rule: During the period of Japanese rule from 1905 to 1945, while the Ainu were treated as "Ainu," the Nivkh and Uilta were classified as "Karafuto natives" and, despite holding Japanese nationality, were distinguished as beings different from the mainlanders (Wajin).

• Unique Culture:

  • Nivkh made their living through hunting and fishing in the Amur River estuary and eastern Sakhalin.

  • Uilta practiced reindeer herding in eastern Sakhalin and the Amur River basin.

  • Sakhalin Ainu possessed a unique culture distinct from the Ainu of Hokkaido.

"Okhotsk Culture, Uilta, and Nivkh"

About the Okhotsk Culture

• Overview: A unique ancient culture that existed for approximately 800 years from the 5th to the 13th century along the Okhotsk Sea coast of Hokkaido.

• Characteristics: Influenced by Northeast Asia, it is characterized by a "sea hunter" lifestyle centered on hunting marine mammals (seals, sea lions, etc.) and whaling.

• Archaeological Sites: The largest site is the Moyoro Shell Mound, a nationally designated historic site in Abashiri City.

• Origins: It is believed to have begun in southern Sakhalin by the Nivkh people (Gilyak), and DNA research also suggests a genetic connection to the Nivkh and Ulch peoples.

• Demise: It is said that they suddenly disappeared around the 13th century, but the reason is unknown.

About the Tobinitai Culture

• Overview: A culture that emerged between the 9th and 13th centuries through the fusion of the Okhotsk culture and the Satsumon culture of Hokkaido.

• Characteristics: In addition to the coastal habitation of the Okhotsk culture, habitation in inland areas also began to be seen. The characteristics of both cultures are fused in the pottery and dwellings.

• Name: Named after the Tobinitai Site in Rausu Town, Nemuro Subprefecture.

About the Uilta and Nivkh peoples

• Habitation and Names: Indigenous peoples of Karafuto (Sakhalin). The Uilta were also called "Orok", and the Nivkh were also called "Gilyak".

• Historical Background: In the relatively recent past, after the end of the war, some people who held Japanese nationality were forcibly repatriated from Karafuto, which had been Japanese territory, and one of their destinations was Abashiri City.

• Connection with Abashiri City: Abashiri City has a deep connection with the Uilta people, and the Uilta Association is located at the Northern Minority Museum. Also, "Patara," the name of the city's tourism ambassador "Ryuhyo Patara," means "young lady" in the Uilta language.

Origins and Formation of the Japanese People

• #Dual Structure Model: A theory that the Japanese people were formed by the interbreeding of immigrants from the Yayoi period onwards with the Jomon people as the base layer.

• #Jomon People: The indigenous people of the Japanese archipelago. They made their living through hunting and gathering and possessed a unique culture.

• #Yayoi People: People who migrated from the continent around the 3rd century BC and brought rice cultivation and metalware culture.

• #Paleo-Mongoloid: The lineage of the Jomon people. It is believed they moved from south to north and reached the Japanese archipelago.

• #Neo-Mongoloid: The lineage of the Yayoi people. They migrated from the continent and interbred with the Paleo-Mongoloids.

• #Interbreeding: The biological mixing between different ethnic groups. The root of the genetic diversity of the Japanese people.

• #Japanese People: A group of people considered to share a common culture or language. Academically, they have diverse roots.

• #Homogeneous Ethnic Myth: The idea that the Japanese people consist of a single ethnic group. It is a historical and political concept with little academic basis.

• #Y-chromosome Haplogroup: A group of genes inherited through the paternal line. An important clue in exploring the roots of the Japanese people.

• #mtDNA Haplogroup: A group of genes inherited through the maternal line. Used to trace maternal lineages.

Diverse peoples of ancient Japan

• #Emishi: People who lived in the eastern part of Honshu and the Tohoku region in ancient times and resisted the Yamato Imperial Court.

• #Hayato: A group that lived in the southern part of Kyushu in ancient times and possessed a unique culture.

• #Kumaso: A group that lived in the southern part of Kyushu in ancient times and is said to have rebelled against the Yamato Imperial Court.

• #Barbarian Tribes: A derogatory term used under the Ritsuryo system to refer to people who were not under the control of the Imperial Court.

• #Fushu (Captives): Emishi people who were conquered by the Yamato Imperial Court and forcibly relocated.

• #Nigi-Emishi (Pacified Emishi): Emishi who submitted to the Imperial Court.

• #Ara-Emishi (Rebellious Emishi): Emishi who resisted the Imperial Court and staged rebellions.

• #Toraijin (Immigrants): People who migrated to Japan from the continent and the Korean Peninsula after the Yayoi period.

• #Kikajin (Naturalized Citizens): Immigrants who were entered into the Japanese family register and served the Imperial Court.

• #Korehari no Azamaro: An Emishi leader who instigated the Hoki Rebellion and burned down Taga Castle.

• #Aterui: A legendary hero who led the Emishi against the Imperial Court forces in the early Heian period.

• #Abe no Hirafu: A general of the Asuka period who conducted expeditions against the Emishi and the Mishihase.

• #Sakanoue no Tamuramaro: A Seii Taishogun who served Emperor Kanmu. Known for subduing Aterui.

• #Thirty-Eight Year War in Tohoku: A long-term conflict between the Yamato Court and the Emishi that began with the Hoki Rebellion.

• #Okimi (Great King): The ruler of ancient Japan. Later known as the Emperor.

• #Taika Reform: The introduction of the Ritsuryo system, which advanced centralization and solidified control over frontier regions.

• #Takenouchi no Sukune: A legendary figure appearing in the Nihon Shoki, said to have inspected the eastern provinces.

• #Seii Taishogun: A military title temporarily established for the conquest of the Emishi.

Ainu people and related keywords

• #Ainu: An indigenous people of the Japanese archipelago residing in Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, and northern Honshu.

• #Ezo: A term that, from the medieval period onwards, came to refer primarily to the Ainu of Hokkaido.

• #Ainu language: An isolated language with a lineage completely different from Japanese.

• #Yukara: Ainu oral epic poetry. It conveys myths and heroic tales.

• #Iomante: A traditional Ainu ritual. A 'bear sending' ceremony to return the spirit of a bear.

• #Chise: A traditional Ainu house. A thatched-roof building with earth-fast posts.

• #Attush: A traditional Ainu textile woven from the inner bark of trees such as the Japanese linden.

• #Okhotsk culture: A culture that flourished along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk from the 5th to the 12th century. It influenced the formation of Ainu culture.

• #Satsumon culture: A culture that developed from the Zoku-Jomon culture of Hokkaido. It is considered the foundation of Ainu culture.

• #Koshamain's Revolt: A large-scale uprising by the Ainu against the Wajin (Japanese) in Hokkaido in the 15th century.

• #Shakushain's Revolt: A 17th-century conflict led by Shakushain over trade between the Ainu and the Matsumae Domain.

• #Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act: A law enacted in 1899 aimed at the protection of the Ainu and their assimilation into the Japanese people.

• #Ainu Cultural Promotion Act: A law enacted in 1997 aimed at the promotion of Ainu culture.

• #Ainu Policy Promotion Act: Enacted in 2019. It was the first law to explicitly define the Ainu as an "indigenous people."

• #Upopoy: The "National Ainu Museum and Park" opened in Shiraoi, Hokkaido, in 2020.

• #Sakhalin Ainu: Ainu who lived in Sakhalin. They possess a culture distinct from that of the Hokkaido Ainu.

• #Nivkh: A hunting and fishing people living in Sakhalin and the Amur River basin.

• #Uilta: A people living in Sakhalin and the Amur River basin. Known for reindeer herding.

• #Mishihase: A people said to have existed in the Tohoku and Hokkaido regions in ancient times. Details are unknown.

Ryukyuan (Okinawan) people and related keywords

• #Ryukyuan people: People living in the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa Prefecture and the southwestern part of Kagoshima Prefecture).

• #Ryukyuan languages: Languages spoken in the Ryukyu Islands. They have a unique history distinct from the Japanese language.

• #Gusuku period: A historical period in the Ryukyu Islands during which castle-like structures called gusuku were built.

• #Ryukyu Kingdom: A kingdom that existed in the Ryukyu Islands from the 15th to the 19th century.

• #Sho Dynasty: The royal family of the Ryukyu Kingdom.

• #Satsuma Domain: Conquered the Ryukyu Kingdom in the 17th century and placed it under its control.

• #Ryukyu Disposition: The event in the late 19th century when the Meiji government abolished the Ryukyu Kingdom and established Okinawa Prefecture.

Modern Japan and Ethnicity

• #Wajin: A term referring to the majority ethnic group of the Japanese archipelago (mainland Japanese) in contrast to the Ainu and Ryukyuan peoples.

• #Japanese people: A group of people sharing a common nationality or culture. They have multiple ethnic roots.

• #Zainichi Korean: People who moved to Japan during the colonial period and their descendants who settled there.

• #Han Chinese: An ethnic group with roots in mainland China.

• #Identity: A sense of belonging to one's own ethnicity or culture.

• #Assimilation policy: A policy intended to make people with different cultures conform to the mainstream culture.

• #Ethnic cleansing: The act of attempting to exclude or expel a specific ethnic group.

• #Indigenous peoples: Ethnic groups that have historically inhabited a land before the establishment of a state.

• #Discrimination: Prejudice or unequal treatment toward a specific ethnic group.

• #Prejudice: Fixed images or feelings held toward a specific ethnic group without any basis.

• #Multicultural Coexistence: A society where people of different ethnicities and cultures respect each other and live together.

• #Globalization: A phenomenon where economies and cultures interact across national borders. It promotes ethnic diversification.

Keywords for Culture and Genetics

• #Language Family: A classification indicating whether languages share a common ancestor.

• #Japanese Language: The primary language of the Japanese archipelago. There are various theories regarding its origin.

• #Dialect: Languages that differ by region. The similarities between the Tohoku and Izumo dialects are often discussed.

• #Rice Cultivation: An agricultural culture introduced by the Yayoi people. It formed the foundation of Japanese society.

• #Hunter-Gathering: The primary livelihood of the Jomon period. Living by utilizing the bounty of nature.

• #Genetic Diversity: The variation of genes within a population. Japanese people possess different diversity depending on the region.

• #Place Names: Names of locations. Ainu place names remain in Hokkaido and the Tohoku region.

• #Ruins: Traces of the lives of people in the past. Important for elucidating the history and culture of ethnic groups.

• #Archaeology: The study of past humanity and culture through the research of ruins and artifacts.

• #Physical Anthropology: The study of human physical characteristics. It analyzes roots based on skeletons and teeth.

Related academic perspectives and figures

• #Teikichi Kita: Historian. He researched the relationship between the Emishi and the Ainu, proposing a theory that equated the two.

• #Kyosuke Kindaichi: Linguist. A leading expert in Ainu language research.

• #Shogoro Tsuboi: Anthropologist. He argued for the existence of the "Koro-pok-guru," an indigenous people distinct from the Ainu, sparking controversy.

• #Kazuro Hanihara: Physical anthropologist. He proposed the dual-structure model, which had a significant impact on research into the origins of the Japanese people.

• #Yoshihiko Amino: Historian. He emphasized the diversity of Japanese society and rethought conventional Japanese history through concepts such as "muen" (non-attachment) and "hinin" (outcasts).

• #Naruya Saitou: Geneticist. He uses DNA analysis to study the origins of the Japanese people.

Historical events and politics

• #Battle of Baekgang: A battle that took place on the Korean Peninsula in 663, where the allied forces of Japan and Baekje were defeated by the allied forces of Tang and Silla.

• #Oshu Fujiwara clan: A powerful family that ruled the Tohoku region in the late Heian period. They claimed blood ties to the Emishi.

• #Ando clan: A powerful family that handled trade with Ezochi (Hokkaido) from the Kamakura period onwards.

• #Matsumae Domain: A domain that ruled Ezochi during the Edo period and monopolized trade with the Ainu.

• #Meiji Restoration: A political reform that promoted the modernization of Japan. It led to the development of Hokkaido and the Former Aborigines Protection Act.

• #Treaty of Saint Petersburg: A treaty concluded between Japan and Russia in 1875, which established Sakhalin as Russian territory and the Kuril Islands as Japanese territory.

• #Russo-Japanese War: A war between Japan and Russia. Through its victory, Japan acquired Southern Sakhalin.

• #World War II: Japan was defeated and lost control of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.

• #Jomon Culture: A hunting and gathering culture that flourished on the Japanese archipelago from approximately 14,000 BC to the 3rd century BC.

• #Yayoi Culture: A rice-cultivating and metal-working culture that spread across the Japanese archipelago from approximately the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD.

• #Kofun Period: The period from approximately the mid-3rd century to the 7th century, during which massive burial mounds (kofun) were constructed.